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This paper reports a qualitative study of the learning environment of a Year 11 Biology class. The research was originally framed in a constructivist epistemology, but was also informed by an emancipatory interest. The main methods used for data gathering were participant observation, interviewing and a written response survey (CES) (Tobin 1993a). It was found that, even though the students viewed the class positively, and described themselves as highly motivated to learn, the level of cognitive engagement was affected by two interrelated factors: the control the teacher had over almost all activities, and student beliefs about learning in this context. The data suggest that both intrinsic and extrinsic motivation which could lead to deep involvement in learning are constrained by a preponderance of teacher-centred methods of instruction. A model is proposed relating intrinsic and extrinsic interest to cognitive engagement. It is concluded that more activities should be used which either implicitly or explicitly reinforce positive beliefs about the need for self-direction in learning. A personal perspective has been included in this paper to indicate the non-linearity of the development of theory. IntroductionMost teachers and researchers would like to know more about the factors which may facilitate or prevent students' deep involvement in learning. This paper is a report of research which explored this question in the context of a Year 11 Biology class.The study grew out of a large research project investigating the relationship between psychosocial learning environment factors and deep learning in science classrooms Tobin 1995, Tobin and. The project had an underlying interest in whether pedagogical factors usually associated with a constructivist epistemology were more or less likely to lead to worthwhile learning, when compared with a more transmissive method of instruction.My training had largely been in psychology, and my implicit and explicit theories of pedagogy had been deeply affected by recent experience and professional development in adult literacy teaching, and this fact led to my research taking a different turn from that of the other researchers in the team. In particular, I was influenced by humanistic theories of learning (e.g. Rogers 1969), as well as androgogy theory (Knowles 1980, cited in Boud 1987 and critical pedagogy (Freire 1990). These theories have in common goals of increasing autonomy for learners and giving a high priority to satisfying learners' needs, but they emphasize different factors. 0950-0693/98 $12·00 © 1998 Taylor & Francis Ltd. Downloaded by [University of Strathclyde] at 02:43 04 December 2014 738 M.HANRAHANThe humanistic school stresses the emotional factors which may inhibit learning and the need for a highly supportive and respectful environment to enable learners to validate and express their personal goals, the androgogy school stresses the importance of a high degree of learner participation in co-structuring progress towards desired ends, and the critical pedagog...

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For many students the study of science can be very disaffirming. This may lead to passivity in class and a lifelong disaffection with science, outcomes which defeat the long-term purpose of trying to achieve scientific literacy for all students. This article represents a new way of framing scientific literacy with a "science for all" goal, based on a nexus of psychological, sociological, and critical literacy theory. A science education researcher and a science teacher collaborated in trialing the use of affirmational dialogue journal writing with early adolescents in a high school situated in a low socioeconomic status area. The intervention was found to be successful on a number of fronts. An approach which affirms students' experience can lead to a deeper approach to learning for adolescent science students.

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