Neurodegeneration associated with defective pantothenate kinase-2 (PKAN) is an early-onset monogenic autosomal-recessive disorder. The hallmark of the disease is the massive accumulation of iron in the globus pallidus brain region of patients. PKAN is caused by mutations in the PANK2 gene encoding the mitochondrial enzyme pantothenate kinase-2, whose function is to catalyze the first reaction of the CoA biosynthetic pathway. To date, the way in which this alteration leads to brain iron accumulation has not been elucidated. Starting from previously obtained hiPS clones, we set up a differentiation protocol able to generate inhibitory neurons. We obtained striatal-like medium spiny neurons composed of approximately 70–80% GABAergic neurons and 10–20% glial cells. Within this mixed population, we detected iron deposition in both PKAN cell types, however, the viability of PKAN GABAergic neurons was strongly affected. CoA treatment was able to reduce cell death and, notably, iron overload. Further differentiation of hiPS clones in a pure population of astrocytes showed particularly evident iron accumulation, with approximately 50% of cells positive for Perls staining. The analysis of these PKAN astrocytes indicated alterations in iron metabolism, mitochondrial morphology, respiratory activity, and oxidative status. Moreover, PKAN astrocytes showed signs of ferroptosis and were prone to developing a stellate phenotype, thus gaining neurotoxic features. This characteristic was confirmed in iPS-derived astrocyte and glutamatergic neuron cocultures, in which PKAN glutamatergic neurons were less viable in the presence of PKAN astrocytes. This newly generated astrocyte model is the first in vitro disease model recapitulating the human phenotype and can be exploited to deeply clarify the pathogenetic mechanisms underlying the disease.

ULK1 (unc-51 like autophagy activating kinase 1) is a core component at multiple steps of canonical macroautophagy/autophagy. The activity of ULK1 is tightly regulated by several post-translational modifications, including ubiquitination, yet the deubiquitinase (DUB) responsible for its reversible deubiquitination has not been described. Here, we identified USP1 (ubiquitin specific peptidase 1) as a key player in the modulation of ULK1 K63-linked deubiquitination. Moreover, both USP1 depletion and its chemical inhibition by pimozide are coupled to a reduction of ULK1 in Triton X-100 soluble cellular lysates, and its compartmentalization to a fraction that can be solubilized in 5 M urea. In USP1-depleted cells this fraction is also enriched in SQSTM1 (sequestosome 1), the aggresome marker HDAC6 (histone deacetylase 6), and the prototype of USP1 targets FANCD2 (FA complementation group D2). Consistently, in USP1-depleted and pimozide-treated cells, ULK1 forms protein aggregates enriched in SQSTM1, as detected by both immummunofluorescence and co-immunoprecipitation studies. Notably, depletion of USP1 inhibits canonical autophagic flux and promotes an alternative route leading to lysosomal-mediated degradation of SQSTM1. Our findings reveal a novel function of the USP1-ULK1 axis as a modulator of the switch between canonical and unconventional autophagy. Further, we provide the first evidence supporting the existence of a subset of breast tumors co-expressing ULK1 and MAP1LC3B (microtubule associated protein 1 light chain 3 beta) proteins. Because the USP1 inhibitor pimozide affects breast cancer cell growth, targeting USP1 in those tumors relying on autophagy for growth might prove to be a convenient therapeutic strategy.Abbreviations: ATG13: autophagy related 13; BECN1: beclin 1; BZ: bortezomib; CAPN1: calpain 1; DUB: deubiquitinase; FANCI: FA complementation group I; FANCD2: FA complementation group D2; FZR1: fizzy and cell division cycle 20 related 1; HDAC6: histone deacetylase 6; MAP1LC3B: microtubule associated protein 1 light chain 3 beta; PMZ: pimozide; SH3GLB1: SH3 domain containing GRB2 like, endophilin B1; SQSTM1: sequestosome 1; TRAF6: TNF receptor associated factor 6; ULK1: unc-51 like autophagy activating kinase 1; USP1: ubiquitin specific peptidase 1; WDR48: WD repeat domain 48 ARTICLE HISTORY

Pantothenate Kinase-associated Neurodegeneration (PKAN) belongs to a wide spectrum of diseases characterized by brain iron accumulation and extrapyramidal motor signs. PKAN is caused by mutations in PANK2, encoding the mitochondrial pantothenate kinase 2, which is the first enzyme of the biosynthesis of Coenzyme A. We established and characterized glutamatergic neurons starting from previously developed PKAN Induced Pluripotent Stem Cells (iPSCs). Results obtained by inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry indicated a higher amount of total cellular iron in PKAN glutamatergic neurons with respect to controls. PKAN glutamatergic neurons, analyzed by electron microscopy, exhibited electron dense aggregates in mitochondria that were identified as granules containing calcium phosphate. Calcium homeostasis resulted compromised in neurons, as verified by monitoring the activity of calcium-dependent enzyme calpain1, calcium imaging and voltage dependent calcium currents. Notably, the presence of calcification in the internal globus pallidus was confirmed in seven out of 15 genetically defined PKAN patients for whom brain CT scan was available. Moreover, we observed a higher prevalence of brain calcification in females. Our data prove that high amount of iron coexists with an impairment of cytosolic calcium in PKAN glutamatergic neurons, indicating both, iron and calcium dys-homeostasis, as actors in pathogenesis of the disease.

CAPNS1 is essential for stability and function of the ubiquitous calcium-dependent proteases micro- and milli-calpain. Upon inhibition of the endoplasmic reticulum Ca2+ ATPase by 100 nM thapsigargin, both micro-calpain and autophagy are activated in human U2OS osteosarcoma cells in a CAPNS1-dependent manner. As reported for other autophagy triggers, thapsigargin treatment induces Golgi fragmentation and fusion of Atg9/Bif-1-containing vesicles with LC3 bodies in control cells. By contrast, CAPNS1 depletion is coupled with an accumulation of LC3 bodies and Rab5 early endosomes. Moreover, Atg9 and Bif-1 remain in the GM130-positive Golgi stacks and Atg9 fails to interact with the endocytic route marker transferrin receptor and with the core autophagic protein Vps34 in CAPNS1-depleted cells. Ectopic expression of a Bif-1 point mutant resistant to calpain processing is coupled to endogenous p62 and LC3-II accumulation. Altogether, these data indicate that calpain allows dynamic flux of Atg9/Bif-1 vesicles from the Golgi toward the budding autophagosome.