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Prevalence and effectiveness of eight types of influence were studied in noncrisis and crisis circumstances. They were measured with the Influence Analysis Questionnaire, on which subordinates assessed the leadership ability of their superiors on eight subscales. Results indicated that open consultation was judged to be used more often in noncrisis than in crisis circumstances, whereas formal power, sanction power, and expert power were more prevalent in crisis situations. In addition to assessment of leadership by subordinates, each leader's managerial qualities were evaluated by his superior. It was found that more formal power was ascribed to effective leaders in crisis circumstances than in noncrisis circumstances; for their less effective colleagues, no difference appeared between situations. Predicted interaction effects with regard to sanction power and expert power were not found. Open consultation, however, was resorted to more often by the most effective leaders in noncrisis than in crisis situations, as predicted.

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