Early childhood growth and development is conditioned by the consecutive events belonging to perinatal programming. This critical window of life will be very sensitive to any event altering programming of the main body functions. Programming of gut function, which is starting right after conception, relates to a very well-established series of cellular and molecular events associating all types of cells present in this organ, including neurons, endocrine and immune cells. At birth, this machinery continues to settle with the establishment of extra connection between enteric and other systemic systems and is partially under the control of gut microbiota activity, itself being under the densification and the diversification of microorganisms’ population. As thus, any environmental factor interfering on this pre-established program may have a strong incidence on body functions. For all these reasons, pregnant women, fetuses and infants will be particularly susceptible to environmental factors and especially food contaminants. In this review, we will summarize the actual understanding of the consequences of repeated low-level exposure to major food contaminants on gut homeostasis settlement and on brain/gut axis communication considering the pivotal role played by the gut microbiota during the fetal and postnatal stages and the presumed consequences of these food toxicants on the individuals especially in relation with the risks of developing later in life non-communicable chronic diseases.

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Taphonomic analysis is a useful tool to assess the intensity of alteration of skeletal remains and to help characterize depositional conditions as well as completeness and resolution of fossil assemblages. We herein introduce TAPHOGRAPH, an Excel spreadsheet script (a R code is also available), for the production of taphonomic diagrams to characterize the taphonomy of skeletal remains. The graphical representation depicts four taphonomic factors (fragmentation, abrasion, bioerosion, and encrustation) as a cumulative curve that allows visualization and comparison of the degree and variability of taphonomic alteration for different hard part types from one or more samples in a single diagram. The TAPHOGRAPH methodology is highly flexible, and can be used to assess the relative influence of mechanical versus biological (versus chemical) taphonomic alteration. The TAPHOGRAPH approach can guide inferences about hydraulic regimes, residence time at the seafloor, and intensity of different taphonomic processes.