Males and females are subjected to distinct kinds of selection pressures, often leading to the evolution of sex‐specific genetic architecture, an example being sex‐specific dominance. Sex‐specific dominance reversals (SSDRs), where alleles at sexually antagonistic loci are at least partially dominant in the sex they benefit, have been documented in Atlantic salmon, rainbow trout, and seed beetles. Another interesting feature of many sexually reproducing organisms is the asymmetric inheritance pattern of X chromosomes, which often leads to distinct evolutionary outcomes on X chromosomes compared to autosomes. Examples include the higher efficacy of sexually concordant selection on X chromosomes, and X chromosomes being more conducive to the maintenance of sexually antagonistic polymorphisms under certain conditions. Immunocompetence is a trait that has been extensively investigated for sexual dimorphism with growing evidence for sex‐specific or sexually antagonistic variation. X chromosomes have been shown to harbor substantial immunity‐related genetic variation in the fruit fly, Drosophila melanogaster. Here, using interpopulation crosses and cytogenetic cloning, we investigated sex‐specific dominance and the role of the X chromosome in improved postinfection survivorship of laboratory populations of D. melanogaster selected against pathogenic challenge by Pseudomonas entomophila. We could not detect any contribution of the X chromosome to the evolved immunocompetence of our selected populations, as well as to within‐population variation in immunocompetence. However, we found strong evidence of sex‐specific dominance related to surviving bacterial infection. Our results indicate that alleles that confer a survival advantage to the selected populations are, on average, partially dominant in females but partially recessive in males. This could also imply an SSDR for overall fitness, given the putative evidence for sexually antagonistic selection affecting immunocompetence in Drosophila melanogaster. We also highlight sex‐specific dominance as a potential mechanism of sex differences in immunocompetence, with population‐level sex differences primarily driven by sex differences in heterozygotes.

The environment experienced by individuals during their juvenile stages has an impact on their adult stages. In holometabolous insects like Drosophila melanogaster, most of the resource acquisition for adult stages happens during the larval stages. Larval-crowding is a stressful environment, which exposes the larvae to scarcity of food and accumulation of toxic waste. Since adult traits are contingent upon larval stages, in larval-crowding like conditions, adult traits are prone to get affected. While the effect of resource limited, poor-developmental environment on adult immune response has been widely studied, the effect of adaptation to resource-limited developmental environment has not been studied, therefore in this study we assayed the evolution of ability to survive infection in adult stages as a correlated response to adaptation to larval crowding environments. Using four populations of Drosophila melanogaster adapted to larval crowding for 240 generations and their respective control populations, we show that populations adapted to larval crowding show an improved and evolved post-infection survivorship against a gram-negative bacteria Pseudomonas entomophila. Whereas, against a gram-positive bacteria Enterococcus faecalis, no difference in post-infection survivorship was observed across control and selected populations. In this study, we report the co-related evolution of pathogen-specific increased survivorship post-infection in populations of Drosophila melanogaster as a result of adaptation to larval crowding environment.

The ability to tolerate temperature stress is an important component of adult fitness. In holometabolous insects like Drosophila melanogaster, adult stress resistance can be affected by growth conditions experienced during the larval stages. Although evolution under crowded larval conditions is known to lead to the correlated evolution of many adult traits, its consequences on adult heat stress tolerance have not been investigated. Therefore, in the present study, we assessed the adult heat stress tolerance in populations of D. melanogaster adapted to a stressful larval crowding environment. We used replicate populations of D. melanogaster, selected for adaptation to larval crowding stress (MCUs), for more than 230 generations, and their respective controls (MBs). Larvae from selected and control populations were grown under crowded and uncrowded conditions, and their adult heat shock resistance at two different temperatures was measured. Further, we compared Hsp70 expression in crowded and uncrowded larvae of both populations and also measured the Hsp70 expression after a mild heat treatment in adults of selected and control populations. Our results showed that adaptation to larval crowding leads to the evolution of Hsp70 gene expression in larval stages and improves adult heat stress tolerance ability in males, but not in females.

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Intralocus Sexual Conflict (IaSC) ensues when males and females of the same species experience divergent selection on shared traits. A large number of traits have been implicated in IaSC and there is growing evidence for sexual antagonism associated with immunity. X chromosomes are thought to be hotspots of sexually antagonistic genetic variation and have been shown to harbour substantial immunity-related genetic variation.Here, using interpopulation crosses and cytogenetic cloning, we investigated the role of the X chromosome in improved immune response of laboratory populations of the fruit-fly Drosophila melanogaster selected against systemic infection by Pseudomonas entomophila.We could not detect any contribution of the X chromosome in the evolved immune response of our selected populations. However, we found strong evidence of sex-specific dominance related to immunity in our populations. Our results indicate that alleles that confer a superior immune response to the selected populations are, on average, partially dominant in females but partially recessive in males.We argue that sex-specific dominance over immunity evolved as a by-product of sexually antagonistic selection in the wild ancestors of our populations. We also highlight sex-specific dominance as a potential mechanism of sex differences in immunity, with population-level sex differences primarily driven by sex differences in heterozygotes.