The ovarian follicle provides the oocyte with the ideal environment for growth and development in preparation for ovulation and fertilisation. The follicle undergoes many structural changes as it grows, including changes in vasculature, cell proliferation and differentiation and the formation of a follicular fluid-filled antrum. These changes collectively create a low oxygen environment within the follicle. Thus, the oocyte itself develops in a potentially hypoxic environment. The survival of hypoxic tissues is controlled by hypoxia-inducible factors (HIFs) that are activated in a low oxygen state. The understanding of HIF pathways is growing across all fields of biology, and its role in ovarian development is steadily gaining clarity. One of the genes upregulated by HIF is vascular endothelial growth factor, the main inducer of angiogenesis which is required for follicle development and luteal formation. Ovulation is also intrinsically linked to HIF activity through the ovulatory luteinizing hormone surge increasing HIF expression. The role for HIF in oocyte maturation is less understood, as efforts to replicate the low oxygen environment of the in vivo follicle are not achievable by culturing in low oxygen alone. There is potential for other factors present in vivo, but lost in vitro, to be involved in oxygen regulation. One factor of interest is haemoglobin, the oxygen-binding protein, which brings the exciting possibility of sensitive oxygen regulation, consequently affecting HIF-regulated gene expression. A thorough understanding of oxygen regulation within the follicle would provide vital applications for the field of assisted reproductive technologies, in particular in vitro oocyte maturation.

Purpose A current focus of the IVF field is non-invasive imaging of the embryo to quantify developmental potential. Such approaches use varying wavelengths to gain maximum biological information. The impact of irradiating the developing embryo with discrete wavelengths of light is not fully understood. Here, we assess the impact of a range of wavelengths on the developing embryo. Methods Murine preimplantation embryos were exposed daily to wavelengths within the blue, green, yellow, and red spectral bands and compared to an unexposed control group. Development to blastocyst, DNA damage, and cell number/allocation to blastocyst cell lineages were assessed. For the longer wavelengths (yellow and red), pregnancy/fetal outcomes and the abundance of intracellular lipid were investigated. Results Significantly fewer embryos developed to the blastocyst stage when exposed to the yellow wavelength. Elevated DNA damage was observed within embryos exposed to blue, green, or red wavelengths. There was no effect on blastocyst cell number/lineage allocation for all wavelengths except red, where there was a significant decrease in total cell number. Pregnancy rate was significantly reduced when embryos were irradiated with the red wavelength. Weight at weaning was significantly higher when embryos were exposed to yellow or red wavelengths. Lipid abundance was significantly elevated following exposure to the yellow wavelength. Conclusion Our results demonstrate that the impact of light is wavelength-specific, with longer wavelengths also impacting the embryo. We also show that effects are energy-dependent. This data shows that damage is multifaceted and developmental rate alone may not fully reflect the impact of light exposure.

Hemoglobin (Hb) is commonly known for its capacity to bind and transport oxygen and carbon dioxide in erythroid cells. However, it plays additional roles in cellular function and health due to its capacity to bind other gases including nitric oxide. Further, Hb acts as a potent antioxidant, quenching reactive oxygen species. Despite its potential roles in cellular function, the preponderance of Hb research remains focused on its role in oxygen regulation. There is increasing evidence that Hb expression is more ubiquitous than previously thought, with Hb and its variants found in a myriad of cell types ranging from macrophages to spermatozoa. The majority of nonerythroid cell types that express Hb are situated within hypoxic environments, suggesting Hb may play a role in hypoxia-inducible factor-regulated gene expression by controlling the level of oxygen available or as an adaptation to low oxygen providing a mechanism to store oxygen. Oocyte maturation and preimplantation embryo development occur within the low oxygen environments of the antral follicle and oviduct/uterus, respectively. Interestingly, Hb was recently found in human cumulus and granulosa cells and murine cumulus–oocyte complexes and preimplantation embryos. Here, we consolidate and analyze the research generated todate on Hb expression in nonerythroid cells with a particular focus on reproductive cell types. We outline future directions of this research to elucidate the role of Hb during oocyte maturation and preimplantation embryo development and finally, we explore the potential clinical applications and benefits of Hb supplementation during the in vitro culture of gametes and embryos.