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This review examines the literature on teacher epistemic cognition, epistemic beliefs, and calibration to consider the relation between these constructs and instruction that emerged from empirical studies. In considering how this body of literature can enhance understanding of how students become masters of their learning processes, we will briefly review how different theoretical frameworks have conceptualized the relation between epistemic cognition, epistemic beliefs, calibration and metacognition, self-regulation, and self-regulated learning. Implications for research include a more nuanced conceptualization of epistemic beliefs and a theoretical integration of these constructs. Implications for practice regard the reciprocal relations between teachers' knowledge, experience, epistemic cognition, epistemic beliefs, and calibration and their effects on pedagogical practices. The role of teachers' education and professional development is discussed.In a recent review of current investigations on self-regulation of academic learning and performance, Zimmerman (2008) characterized the question driving this body of research as a quest for understanding "how students become masters of their own learning processes" (p. 167). We believe that a key aspect of this progress is the development of critical abilities that help learners to search for the meaning of what is learned, hence allowing them to be responsible actors in the learning process. Evaluating the quality of the information available in a particular learning context, reflecting on the nature of knowledge obtainable in a certain situation, and choosing what strategies to activate in order to get to know a specific aspect of reality are fundamental aids to enable learners to think critically.

Background. While the literature on strategy use is relatively mature, measures of strategy use overwhelmingly measure only one aspect of that use, frequency, when relating that strategy use to performance outcomes. While this might be one important attribute of strategy use, there is increasing evidence that quality and conditional use of cognitive and metacognitive strategies may also be important.

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