Conducting polymer actuators are being investigated for a number of applications. Both linear contracting/expanding and bending type actuators can be constructed that utilise the redox-induced volume changes in the conducting polymer. Improved actuator performance has been demonstrated by modifications to our helix-tube design. The pitch of the helix and bundling the actuators have increased the strain and force generated. Short-term improvements to the strain were also generated using new dopants, but cycle life was poor in this case. Further studies on the mechanism of actuation have continued to focus attention on the influence of the elastic modulus on the actuation strain. Surprising results have been obtained from polythiophene actuators that show an increased strain and increased work-per-cycle with an increasing applied load in isotonic operation. The observations were explained by an increase in modulus during the contraction cycle of the actuation. Preliminary studies show how the change in modulus can be conveniently measured using an in situ mechanical technique.

Application of conducting polymers has been growing widely in different fields such as batteries, solar cells, capacitors and actuators. Mechanical properties of conducting polymers like flexibility, high power to mass ratio and high active strain make them potentially applicable to robotic and automation industries. Obviously, a dynamic model of the actuation phenomenon in conducting polymers is needed to study its controllability and also to optimize the mechanical performance. De Rossi and colleagues suggest treating the mechanical behaviour of conducting polymers separately from the viscoelastic structural model and electrochemical actuation [1] . But it has been observed that the effects of electrochemical actuation and diffusion of ions on the viscoelastic coefficients cannot be neglected in some conducting polymer actuators, as shown in [1] . In this paper, we present the effects of cyclic voltammetry actuation on shear modulus of polypyrrole in propylene carbonate and EMI.TSFI as measured by an electrochemical Quartz Crystal Microbalance (eQCM). The QCM consists basically of an AT-cut piezoelectric quartz crystal disc with metallic electrode films deposited on its faces. One face is exposed to the active medium. A driver circuit applies an AC signal to the electrodes, causing the crystal to oscillate in a shear mode, at a given resonance frequency. QCM has been routinely used for the determination of mass changes. Measured resonance frequency shifts are converted into mass changes by the wellknown Sauerbrey's equation. In this paper, we correlate the admittance output of QCM to the real shear modulus of polypyrrole. Then the results of the correlation which contains mechanical data are presented during actuation using two different types of electrolyte.

Conducting polymers (CP) are a promising area in the field of micro actuators, and have potential applications in micro robotics. Their properties are modelled as having an electro-chemical active component and a passive viscoelastic component. Methods exist to model the passive component as a configuration of springs and dashpots and the electroactive effects as a strain generator. Typically, the strain is assumed to be proportional to the charge transferred, and the two components are assumed to be independent. We show that there is a significant interaction between the two components for polypyrrole actuators, by observing the dynamic elastic modulus whilst varying the electric potential. The elastic modulus was measured in-situ by applying a high frequency rectangular isotonic stress input and recording the corresponding strain output. Two separate potential control inputs, vs. a reference electrode, were used. In the first experiment, a triangular voltage signal with variable frequency was applied to the PPy helix tube actuator and in the second experiment; a step voltage signal was applied to the actuator. The value of total real modulus was calculated during both experiments to evaluate the effect of actuation on the mechanical properties of PPy actuator. The performance of the mentioned method was confirmed by comparing its results to that of a sinusoidal stress input during a temperature ramp through the glass transition of polyethylene terephthalate (PET). We show that polypyrrole actuators show a complex change in stiffness with contractile state, which mimic skeletal muscle [1].

Conducting polymer actuators with favourable properties such as linearity, high power density and compliance are of increasing demand in micro applications. These materials generate forces over two times larger than produced by mammalian skeletal muscles. They operate to convert electro chemical energy to mechanical stress and strain. On the other hand, the application of conducting polymers is limited by the lack of a full description of the relation between four essential parameters: stress, strain, voltage and current. In this paper, polypyrrole helix tube micro actuator mechanical characteristics are investigated. The electrolyte is propylene carbonate and the dopant is TBA. PF 6 . The experiments are both in isotonic and isometric conditions and the input parameters are both electrical and mechanical. A dual mode force and length control and potentiostat / galvanostat are utilized for this purpose. Ultimately, the viscoelastic behaviour of the actuator is presented in this paper by a standard stress relaxation test. The effect of electrical stimulus on mechanical parameters is also explored by cyclic voltametry at different scan rates to obtain the best understanding of the actuation mechanism. The results demonstrate that the linear viscoelastic model, which performed well on conducting polymer film actuators, has to be modified to explain the mechanical behaviour of PPy helix tube fibre micro actuators. Secondly, the changes in mechanical properties of PPy need to be considered when modelling electromechanical behaviour.

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