Combination of soft active hydrogels with hard passive polymers gives rise to all-polymer composites. The hydrogel is sensitive to external stimuli while the passive polymer is inert. Utilizing the different behaviors of two materials subject to environmental variation, for example temperature, results in self-folding soft machines. We report our efforts to model the programmable deformation of self-folding structures with temperature-sensitive hydrogels. The self-folding structures are realized either by constructing a bilayer structure or by incorporating hydrogels as hinges. The methodology and the results may aid the design, control and fabrication of 3D complex structures from 2D simple configurations through self-assembly.

Imitating origami principles in active or programmable materials opens the door for development of origami-inspired self-folding structures for not only aesthetic but also functional purposes. A variety of programmable materials enabled self-folding structures have been demonstrated across various fields and scales. These folding structures have finite thickness and the mechanical properties of the active materials dictate the folding process. Yet formalizing the use of origami rules for use in computer modeling has been challenging, owing to the zero-thickness theory and the exclusion of mechanical properties in current models. Here, we describe a physics-based finite element simulation scheme to predict programmable self-folding of temperature-sensitive hydrogel trilayers. Patterning crease and assigning mountain or valley folds are highlighted for complex origami such as folding of the Randlett's flapping bird and the crane. Our efforts enhance the understanding and facilitate the design of origami-inspired self-folding structures, broadening the realization and application of reconfigurable structures.

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We combine experiment and finite element simulation and come up with a design for a mechanical metamaterial which demonstrates snap-back induced hysteresis and energy dissipation. The resultant is an elastic system that can be used reversibly for many times. The underlying mechanism of the existence of hysteresis and the physics of snap-back induced elastic instability is unveiled. Our results open an avenue for the design and implementation of recoverable energy dissipation devices by harnessing mechanical instability.

A composite of liquid crystal elastomer (LCE) incorporated with carbon nanotubes (CNTs) can convert absorbed photon energy into thermal energy to trigger the phase transition of the LCE, resulting in photo-thermo-mechanically actuated devices. We model the transient temperature distribution and the bending kinetics of a straight cantilever beam actuator under the radiation of a laser diode (LD) light. Three possible bending modes of the beam for various LD light powers are identified. The temperature distribution and the bending modes are found to be in good agreement with the reported experimental observations. The underlying deformation mechanisms and bending modes are manifested by probing the stress evolution and propagation of nonzero stress regions during the bending process. For a beam that is initially slightly curved, we also predict the possibility of snap-through instability, and three typical phases of snapping are captured. This procedure paves the way for the design of LCE-based soft actuators.