Earlier research suggests that diverse adolescent problem behaviors, such as substance use, school problems, early sexual intercourse, and delinquency, reflect a single underlying dimension of behavior. Data from an ongoing longitudinal study were used to examine this issue in a previously unexamined sample (N = 426) of preadolescent sixth-grade youth. Ss included boys and girls from diverse socioeconomic and racial/ethnic backgrounds, whose average ages were 11 and 12. By using confirmatory factor analyses to test competing models, multiple factor structures were detected, suggesting that earlier findings supporting a single factor conceptualization may not be generalizable to this age group. Implications of the finding that problem behaviors may be more differentiated in late childhood than in adolescence are discussed.

Sociological theories of delinquency offer rather divergent predictions concerning the eflect of dropping out of high school on subsequent delinquent and criminal behavior. For example, strain theory suggests that dropping out decreases such behavior, especially for lower class youth, while social control theov suggests that dropping out should increase the chances of criminal activity. Moreover, empirical studies provide support for each of these views with the most influential study (Elliott and Voss, 1974) presenting evidence consistent with a strain perspective. The present investigation identifies methodological shortcomings in previous studies and reexamines the link between dropout status and subsequent criminal activity. Results indicate that dropping out of high school is positively associated with later crime, an outcome that is consistent with a control perspective.The relationship between school failure and criminal behavior is a recurrent theme in theories of delinquency. Eventual dropouts have been found to have considerably higher rates of delinquency during high school than do graduates (e.g., Elliott and Voss, 1974; Polk, Adler, Bazemore, Blake, Cordray, Coventry, Galvin, and Temple, 1981), a finding consistent both with conventional wisdom and most theories of delinquency. However, what is not clear either theoretically or empirically is the effect that dropping out of high school has on subsequent criminal behavior. Indeed, for this relationship two basic models of delinquency, strain theory and social control theory, offer rather divergent predictions.CRIMINOLOGY VOLUME 23 NUMBER 1 1985 3

Family adjustment to childhood disability is associated with elements of strength in mothers' psychological coping; namely, their ability to perceive positive family consequences of childhood disability and to maintain higher proportions of positive emotion in their daily activities. The findings of this study provide support for the broaden-and-build theory to explain the role of positivity in mothers' coping and adjustment to childhood disability.

Objective Process model of stress and coping guided psychometric assessment of two brief measures of psychological well-being: Parenting Morale Index (PMI); Family Impact of Childhood Disability (FICD) scale. Methods Canadian mothers (N = 195) of children with disability (CWD) completed PMI, FICD, and validation measures (Brief Family Assessment Measure [FAM], Personal Well-Being Index, Positive and Negative Affect Schedule, General Self-Efficacy Scale, Social Desirability Scale) via computer-assisted telephone interview. Of these, 154 completed additional validation measures (Center for Epidemiological Studies—Depression Scale, Parenting Stress Index, Family Hardiness Index, Brief FAM) 1 year later. Results Factor structures of PMI and FICD were supported; both demonstrated internal consistency, temporal stability, and convergent and discriminant validity. After 1 year, PMI and FICD jointly predicted depressive symptoms, parenting stress, family hardiness, and family adjustment. Conclusion PMI and FICD can identify mothers of CWD at risk for poor psychological well-being to increase the specificity of supports.