Background An increase in elbow pathology in adolescents has paralleled an increase in sports participation. Evaluation and classification of these injuries is challenging because of limited information regarding normal anatomy. The purpose of this study was to evaluate normal radiographic anatomy in adolescents to establish parameters for diagnosing abnormal development. Established and new measurements were evaluated for reliability and variance based on age and sex. Methods Three orthopaedic surgeons independently and in a standardized fashion evaluated the normal anteroposterior and lateral elbow radiographs of 178 adolescent and young adult subjects. Fourteen measurements were performed including radial neck- shaft angle, articular surface angle, articular surface morphologic assessment (subjective and objective evaluation of the patterns of ridges and sulci), among others. We performed a statistical analysis by age and sex for each measure and assessed for inter and intra-observer reliability. Results The distal humerus articular surface was relatively flat in adolescence and became more contoured with age as objectively demonstrated by increasing depth of the trochlear and trochleocapitellar sulci, and decreasing trochlear notch angle. Overall measurements were similar between males and females, with an increased carrying angle in females. There were several statistically significant differences based on age and sex but these were small and unlikely to be clinically significant. Inter and intra-observer reliability were variable; some commonly utilized tools had poor reliability. Conclusions Most commonly utilized radiographic measures were consistent between sexes, across the adolescent age group, and between adolescents and young adults. Several commonly used assessment tools show poor reliability. Level of evidence Basic Science Study, Anatomic Study, Imaging

Purpose This study was designed to assess the relationship between skeletal and chronological ages among current American adolescents using the Greulich and Pyle atlas for skeletal age determination. Materials and methods We used the Greulich and Pyle atlas to prospectively determine skeletal age in a group of 138 otherwise healthy American adolescents from 12 to 18 years of age. 62 males and 76 females were enrolled in this cohort. Paired Student t-tests were used to statistically compare the skeletal and chronological ages in this population. Subgroup analysis examined the effect of gender on differences between chronologic age and skeletal age. Results For the entire cohort, mean skeletal age was significantly greater than chronological age (mean 0.80 years, P \ 0.01). In 29 cases (21%) the skeletal age was at least 2 years greater than the chronologic age. Among females, such cases with marked discrepancy occurred exclusively in those chronologically between 12 and 15 years of age (P \ 0.01). Males demonstrated a 2-year or greater discrepancy more commonly than females (26 vs. 17%). In males, 2-year discrepancies were equally likely across chronologic ages (P = 0.82). Conclusions Current American adolescents are significantly more mature by skeletal age, as determined by the Greulich and Pyle method, than their chronological age would suggest. The skeletal ages of females are most likely to markedly exceed chronologic age between the ages of 12-15 years.

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