Educational policies that impact second language (L2) learners—a rapidly-growing group—are often enacted without consulting relevant research. This review synthesized research regarding optimal conditions for L2 acquisition, facilitative L2 learner and teacher characteristics, and speed of L2 acquisition, from four bodies of work—foreign language education, child language research, sociocultural studies, and psycholinguistics—often overlooked by educators. Seventy-one peer-reviewed journal articles studying PK-12 L2 learners met inclusion criteria. Findings included: 1) Optimal conditions for L2 learners immersed in a majority-L2 society include strong home literacy practices, opportunities to use the L2 informally, well-implemented specially-designed L2 educational programs, and sufficient time devoted to L2 literacy instruction, whereas L2 learners with little L2 exposure require explicit instruction to master grammar; 2) L2 learners with strong L2 aptitude, motivation, and first language (L1) skills are more successful; 3) Effective L2 teachers demonstrate sufficient L2 proficiency, strong instructional skills, and proficiency in their students’ L1; 4) L2 learners require 3-7 years to reach L2 proficiency, with younger learners typically taking longer but more likely to achieve close-to-native results. These findings, even those most relevant to education, are not reflected in current US policy. Additional research is needed on the characteristics of successful or unsuccessful L2 learners and L2 teachers. Such research should attend systematically to the differences between L2 learning in maximal versus minimal input settings; whereas the psycholinguistic challenges of L2 learning might be common across settings, the sociocultural and interactional challenges and opportunities differ in ways that can massively impact outcomes.

The purpose of this study was to examine the relationship between input and literacy/ metalinguistic development in bilingual children. Participants included fourth-grade Chinese-English bilinguals from Taiwan and the USA. The two groups were comparable in socioeconomic status, non-verbal IQ, and the amount of literacy instruction in Chinese and English, but the bilingual participants from Taiwan had more exposure to Chinese and less exposure to English outside of school than their US counterparts. A battery of standardized and researcher-developed measures of literacy and metalinguistic skills were administered in English and Chinese. Results showed that, in general, the greater the amount of input, the more superior the linguistic/metalinguistic development. However, advantages associated with input appeared to be offset by a more balanced bilingual experience on measures that assessed higher levels of metalinguistic awareness. In addition, hierarchical regression analyses showed that morpho-syntactic awareness made a unique contribution to reading comprehension beyond that by vocabulary and morphological awareness only among the participants in Taiwan. The findings make several noteworthy contributions to research on input among bilingual learners. Firstly, the present study highlights the importance of recognizing the variations of bilinguals who speak the same pair of languages, and the impact of linguistic input outside of the school context on language and literacy development in academic settings. Secondly, findings from the present study call for a broader conceptualization of the relationship between input and linguistic/metalinguistic development, and underscore the importance of examining how input may impact the relationship of linguistic and metalinguistic variables. Finally, the present study highlights the need to re-conceptualize input. Indicators of input should go beyond to the quantity or quality of exposure to the assessed language, and be expanded to include the degree of balance in both languages.

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Turkey presents a unique picture as the host of the highest number of Syrian refugees after the outbreak of civil war in Syria in 2011. According to United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (2018), Turkey has more than 3.5 million Syrian refugees half of whom are school-aged children. These children have limited access to their basic human right: receiving quality education. Fewer than half of approximately one million school aged (ages 5 to 18) Syrian refugee children could receive regular education services in Turkey (Directorate General of Immigration Affairs, 2016). Turkey welcomed a large number of Syrian refugees without taking necessary steps in its education system. Embracing cultural diversity via multiculturalism, and multilingual education, one needs to direct the attention of the audience to the long-term struggle of refugee children in Turkish education system and draw a conceptual framework for quality education and excellence in teacher education. The present paper is an attempt to highlight the role of multicultural education; more specifically through the lens of multicultural literacy practices. Highlighting the contributions of various genres of different ethnic and racial backgrounds such as songs, poetry, fiction, (auto)biographies, multicultural literacy could increase cultural awareness and understanding of pupils, teachers, administrators and the communities, and could help establish enriching learning experiences for Turkish and Syrian children. Multicultural literature provides a meaningful platform affirming differences and showing cultural connections, revealing social issues, necessitating action against injustice, and embracing diverse cultures. When implemented with care, multicultural literacy could increase academic achievement of ethnic minority and at-risk students, heighten cultural awareness and understanding of all students, and provide meaningful learning opportunities for all. The present paper aims to delve into the relationship among English as a lingua franca, Syrian refugee children education, and the theoretical underpinning of multicultural and multi-ethnic education in relation to English language instruction in Turkey.