Pathogen traits can vary greatly and heavily impact the ability of a pathogen to persist in a population. Although this variation is fundamental to disease ecology, little is known about the evolutionary pressures that drive these differences, particularly where they interact with host behaviour. We hypothesized that host behaviours relevant to different transmission routes give rise to differences in contact network structure, constraining the space over which pathogen traits can evolve to maximize fitness. Our analysis of 232 contact networks across mammals, birds, reptiles, amphibians, arthropods, fish and molluscs found that contact network topology varies by contact type, most notably in networks that are representative of fluid-exchange transmission. Using infectious disease model simulations, we showed that these differences in network structure suggest pathogens transmitted through fluid-exchange contact types will need traits associated with high transmissibility to successfully proliferate, compared to pathogens that transmit through other types of contact. These findings were supported through a review of known traits of pathogens that transmit in humans. Our work demonstrates that contact network structure may drive the evolution of compensatory pathogen traits according to transmission strategy, providing essential context for understanding pathogen evolution and ecology.

Family involvement contributes to student success, and family-school communication (FSC) is intended to promote parent involvement; however, little is known about the communication processes that enlist that involvement. There are unanswered questions about how elementary educators perceive, prepare for, and engage in communication with families. Using an ecological framework and qualitative design, this study explored educator perceptions of FSC at elementary schools serving a US military population. Individual interviews were analyzed for thematic content, resulting in six themes: the critical importance of communication; its types and formats; school climate; teacher preparation; roles and skills; and contextual influences including considerations for military families. Teachers described effective and ineffective approaches and skills, role and time pressures, and recommended practices. Participants lacked formal preparation for FSC and constructed their skills based on experience. The authors discuss implications for personnel preparation and staff development, school and classroom policies and practices, and ecological considerations unique to military contexts.

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Humans have been altering wildlife habitats and wildlife behavior worldwide at an accelerated pace in recent decades. While it is well-understood how human-induced behavioral changes affect infectious disease risk in terrestrial wildlife, less is known in marine life. Here we examine this link in marine mammal populations by (1) conducting a systematic literature review to determine how human disturbances change marine mammal behavior in ways that can impact disease spread, and (2) examining how these behavioral changes might influence potential epidemics using a mathematical modeling framework. We find that human disturbances can influence marine mammal behavior in a way that increases their exposure and susceptibility to pathogens, as well as their infectivity, or ability to effectively shed pathogens and infect conspecifics. When these changes to exposure, susceptibility, and infectivity are applied in four different marine mammal case studies, epidemics are predicted to be larger and more likely to occur. Considering the rate at which human disturbance is increasing in the marine environment, and the large number of marine mammal species that are endangered oron the verge of extinction, we advocate for the careful consideration of the direct and indirect impact of human disturbance on marine mammal health.

Pathogen traits can vary greatly and impact the ability of a pathogen to persist in a population. Although this variation is fundamental to disease ecology, little is known about the evolutionary pressures that drive these differences, particularly where they interact with host behavior. We hypothesized that host behaviors relevant to different transmission routes give rise to differences in contact network structure, constraining the space over which pathogen traits can evolve to maximize fitness. Our analysis of 232 contact networks across mammals, birds, reptiles, amphibians, arthropods, fish and mollusks found that contact network topology varies by contact events, most notably in networks that are representative of fluid-exchange transmission. Using infectious disease model simulations, we showed that these differences in network structure suggest pathogens transmitted through fluid-exchange contact events will need traits associated with high transmissibility in order to successfully proliferate, compared to pathogens that transmit through other types of contact. These findings were supported through a review of known traits of pathogens that transmit in humans. Our work demonstrates that contact network structure may drive the evolution of compensatory pathogen traits according to transmission strategy, providing essential context for understanding pathogen evolution and ecology.