Ten pesticide applicators in Michigan, Wisconsin, and Minnesota were monitored for dermal and inhalation exposure to nitrofen (2,4-dichlorophenyl p-nitrophenyl ether) during typical mixing and spraying operations on onion, carrot, cabbage, and celery crops. The variables studied were formulation [emulsifiable concentrate (EC) vs. wettable powder (WP)], handling (open vs. liquid pumping), body location (palm, leg, arm, chest, head), and protective garments (best protection vs. minimal protection scenarious). Handling the WP formulation provided the highest potential dermal and inhalation exposure, much of which occurred during the mixing operation. Nitrofen deposits on the hands, a major site of dermal exposure, could be reduced by an average factor of approximately 220 by using rubber gloves. Potential daily exposure was reduced more than half by using the EC rather than the WP formulation, even if no protective garments were worn. Total exposure was reduced approximately 78% by pumping vs. pouring the EC formulation and more than 90% by handling pumped EC compared to WP. Daily exposure can be reduced to less than 300 Mg when wearing a protective coverall plus an air filtration system and when handling the EC formulation.The herbicide nitrofen (2,4-dichlorophenyl p-nitrophenyl ether) has provided unique selective weed control properties in a number of intensively managed vegetable and ornamental crops. For many of these crops it has been the only registered herbicide with activity on emerged weeds. Nitrofen has high economic value to the producer of these specialty crops. For example, in onion production, its use at 4 times during the season at 1.0 lb/acre can eliminate an average of 76 h of hand labor per acre and save up to an additional 36 lb/acre in alternative herbicide usage (Boldt et al., 1981).Prior to 1981, nitrofen was marketed as a 50% wettable powder (WP) or 25% emulsifiable concentrate (EC) formulation. The WP was packaged in 5-lb paper bags and the EC was sold in 5or 35-gal metal cans. The Rohm and Haas Co. voluntarily discontinued marketing nitrofen prior to the 1981 season after several studies had disclosed potential toxicology problems with the compound.At least three studies have indicated that nitrofen may cause tetratogenic effects if female rats or mice are exposed during gestation (Ambrose et al., 1971; Kimbrough et al., 1974; Gray et al., 1982). Other animal studies have shown nitrofen to be a possible mutagen and carcinogen (Paik and Lee, 1977; Milman et al., 1978; National Cancer Institute, 1978). Another potential concern is the relatively high dermal absorption rate (Burke, 1981). No serious human illnesses, birth defects, or deaths have been attributed to exposure to this compound.Sensitive EC/GLC methods have been developed for detection of nitrofen and its metabolites in crops and soils (Adler and Wargo, 1975; Wargo et al., 1975; Honeycutt and Alder, 1975). Nitrofen is degraded rapidly in both plants and soil and is also subject to rapid adsorption on soil colloids (Fadayomi ...

This article is concerned with four inscriptions found at Bodhgayā in the nineteenth century that are documented by records kept in the Department of Asia at the British Museum. Two Tibetan inscriptions, probably dating between the ninth and fourteenth centuries, are of special note because they provide the first archaeological evidence for Tibetans at the site. Chinese and Burmese records of the eleventh, twelfth and thirteenth century are also noted, that of the Song emperor Renzong (1022–63) being illustrated for the first time.

This article argues for a radical revision of later Gupta chronology based on a review of the primary evidence. The paucity of dated material has meant that historical reconstructions of the period have been based on late-Victorian assumptions about the nature of society and kingship. Removing this ideological framework allows not only for a revision of chronology — a traditional historical concern — but for a new understanding of Gupta kingship and the constitution of state.

This report presents the results of a short programme of fieldwork targeted towards the investigation of the archaeological and geographical setting of the Chamak copperplate charter. This inscription, unearthed in the modern village of Chamak in 1868, records the grant of land to a group of Brahmins living in the village of 'Charmaka'. These have long been assumed to be the same place, but the archaeological contexts of the find spot of the charter had never been explored. Preliminary surveys in and around Chamak have revealed a considerable amount of archaeological material, which is presented here.

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