The campaign against masturbation offers one of the outstanding success stories in the history of medical popularization. This paper seeks to identify the reasons for this success, focusing on the campaign's early stages, from the late seventeenth century onwards. It first identifies a series of often quite explicit political, ideological, and economic motives such as religious notions of 'uncleaniness', bourgeois concerns about self-control, marriage, and population growth, and the financial interests of the London veneral trade. Drawing, in particular, on the 'confessions of self-declared victims of masturbation in eighteenth-century patient letters, it then shows that the physical and mental symptoms attributed to masturbation very successfully addressed some of the deepest anxieties in contemporary society, anxieties about virility, gender identity, and physical selfhood. Finally, applying Bourdieu's notion of 'habitus', the central role of a new, implicitly male, more solid, closed and self-contained dominant body image is underlined. Framing the interpretation and the very experience of the body among the proponents and the recipients of anti-onanist discourse alike, it helped to make the dangers of masturbation an almost irrefutable, objective truth.

Very little is known to this point about the practical skills which sixteenth-century physicians needed and applied at the bedside and even less about how these skills were taught to students. Drawing on student notebooks and on printed collections of consilia by Padua professors, this paper outlines the different settings in which case-centered and, more specifically, bedside teaching was imparted in mid-sixteenth-century Padua. It describes the range of diagnostic and therapeutic skills that students acquired thanks to this hands-on training at the patient's bedside, from uroscopy and feeling the pulse to the manual exploration of the patient's abdomen, which, historians have wrongly believed, physicians performed very rarely or not at all, and surgical skills. Taking a closer look, more specifically, at the role of teaching in the Hospital of San Francesco in Padua, the paper provides evidence that not only Giovanna Battista da Monte but also at least one other mid-sixteenth-century professor, Antonio Fracanzani, made systematic use of the teaching opportunities which the hospital offered. Ultimately, the paper will argue that clinical teaching in the hospital did not differ fundamentally from forms of bedside teaching in the patients' homes, however. Both became increasingly popular in Padua and elsewhere at the time, reflecting a growing appreciation for the practical and sensory skills which future physicians needed in addition to theoretical learning if they hoped to be successful in the highly contested early modern medical marketplace.

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Additional material for this article is available from the James Lind Library website [http://www.jameslindlibrary.org], where this paper was previously published.

Based on a wide range of Latin and vernacular sources, this essay reexamines Thomas Laqueur's and Londa Schiebinger's influential claim that the idea of incommensurable anatomical difference between the sexes was "invented" in the eighteenth century, reflecting, in particular, a need to resort to nature in order to justify female subordination against new ideals of equality and universal rights. It provides ample evidence that already around 1600 many leading physicians, rather than proclaiming a "one-sex model" of female inferiority, insisted on the unique and purposeful features of the female skeleton and the female genital organs and illustrated them visually. The author shares Laqueur's and Schiebinger's assumption that the shift toward incommensurable anatomical difference helped legitimize woman's subordinate position as housewife and mother as naturally given. But around 1600 Enlightenment ideals as yet played no role. Instead, this shift reflected, in particular, contemporary physicians' growing appreciation of personal discovery and innovation, the rise of a specialist gynecology, and new views on marriage and motherhood in the upper classes among whom the physicians lived and whose support they sought.