Selective attention filters information to limit what is encoded and maintained in working memory. Although the prefrontal cortex (PFC) is central to both selective attention and working memory, the underlying neural processes that link these cognitive abilities remain elusive. Using functional magnetic resonance imaging to guide repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation with electroencephalographic recordings in humans, we perturbed PFC function at the inferior frontal junction prior to participants performing a selective-attention, delayed-recognition task. This resulted in diminished top-down modulation of activity in posterior cortex during early encoding stages, which predicted a subsequent decrement in working memory accuracy. Participants with stronger fronto-posterior functional connectivity displayed greater disruptive effects. Data further suggested that broad alpha band (7–14 Hz) phase coherence subserved this long distance top-down modulation. The results establish top-down modulation mediated by the prefrontal cortex as a causal link between early attentional processes and subsequent memory performance.

The negative impact of external interference on working memory (WM) performance is well documented; yet, the mechanisms underlying this disruption are not sufficiently understood. In this study, electroencephalogram and functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) data were recorded in separate experiments that each introduced different types of visual interference during a period of WM maintenance: distraction (irrelevant stimuli) and interruption (stimuli that required attention). The data converged to reveal that regardless of the type of interference, the magnitude of processing interfering stimuli in the visual cortex (as rapidly as 100 ms) predicted subsequent WM recognition accuracy for stored items. fMRI connectivity analyses suggested that in the presence of distraction, encoded items were maintained throughout the delay period via connectivity between the middle frontal gyrus and visual association cortex, whereas memoranda were not maintained when subjects were interrupted but rather reactivated in the postinterruption period. These results elucidate the mechanisms of external interference on WM performance and highlight similarities and differences of distraction and multitasking.

Distinct areas within the visual association cortex are specialized for representing specific stimulus features, such as V4 for color and V5/hMT+ for motion. Recent studies have demonstrated that areas associated with attended features exhibit enhanced cortical activity, whereas those associated with ignored features elicit reduced activity. However, the source of this attentional (or top-down) modulation remains uncertain. A network of fronto-parietal cortical regions has been proposed as the prime candidate underlying this top-down modulation. Here, we evaluate whether there are distinct or overlapping top-down network regions for attention to different stimulus features. To this end, we explored functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) functional connectivity data, electroencephalographic (EEG) source localization, and phase coherence that were obtained while participants attended or ignored motion and color stimuli. Functional connectivity analysis indicated that attention to color relies strongly on prefrontal regions, whereas attention to motion recruits both prefrontal and parietal areas. Although these networks are generally topologically segregated, both color and motion processes recruit right inferior frontal junction (IFJ). However, the IFJ may be more critical for color processing, as only connectivity with V4 predicted the degree of attentional modulation. Source localization at the time range of attentional modulation of the event related potential corroborated the role of the right IFJ and indicated that feature-based, top-down modulation occurs early during processing (< 200 ms post-stimulus onset). Furthermore, long-distance alpha (8-12 Hz) phase coherence between the IFJ and visual cortices may serve as a mechanism underlying anticipatory, top-down modulation of color feature processing.

Multitasking negatively influences the retention of information over brief periods of time. This impact of interference on working memory is exacerbated with normal aging. We used functional MRI to investigate the neural basis by which an interruption is more disruptive to working memory performance in older individuals. Younger and older adults engaged in delayed recognition tasks both with and without interruption by a secondary task. Behavioral analysis revealed that working memory performance was more impaired by interruptions in older compared with younger adults. Functional connectivity analyses showed that when interrupted, older adults disengaged from a memory maintenance network and reallocated attentional resources toward the interrupting stimulus in a manner consistent with younger adults. However, unlike younger individuals, older adults failed to both disengage from the interruption and reestablish functional connections associated with the disrupted memory network. These results suggest that multitasking leads to more significant working memory disruption in older adults because of an interruption recovery failure, manifest as a deficient ability to dynamically switch between functional brainnetworks.W orking memory (WM), the ability to store and manipulate information in the mind over brief periods of time, is critical for a wide variety of cognitive abilities and real life activities (1). It has been demonstrated that WM performance is negatively impacted by the presence of external stimuli that are outside the focus of our memory goals (2, 3). This interference occurs whether there is an attempt to ignore these stimuli (i.e., distractions), or attend to them as a component of a concurrent, secondary task (i.e., interruptions, or multitasking) (4). We recently showed that older adults experience a more negative impact by distraction on WM performance compared with younger adults, and an even greater impairment when multitasking (5). There is extensive literature indicating that older adults are highly susceptible to distraction and that this leads to impairment in performance (for review, see refs. 6 and 7). In terms of a greater impact of multitasking on WM in aging, this finding is consistent with the detrimental influence that multitasking has been shown to have on a wide range of activities in older individuals (8-10). Research directed at understanding the basis of age-related interference effects is becoming increasingly important, as older adults remain engaged in the work force later in life (11), which itself is evolving into a more demanding, high-interference environment (12).To explore the neural basis of age-related WM disruption by distractions, we previously conducted a series of experiments using electroencephalography (EEG) and functional MRI (fMRI) recordings. Functional MRI measures revealed that older individuals inappropriately direct excessive attention toward processing visual stimuli that are entirely irrelevant (i.e., distractions), and that this correlates with diminishe...

Expectations generated by predictive cues increase the efficiency of perceptual processing for complex stimuli (e.g., faces, scenes); however, the impact this has on working memory (WM) and long-term memory (LTM) has not yet been investigated. Here, healthy young adults performed delayed-recognition tasks that differed only in stimulus category expectations, while behavioral and functional magnetic resonance imaging data were collected. Univariate and functional-connectivity analyses were used to examine expectation-driven, prestimulus neural modulation, networks that regulate this modulation, and subsequent memory performance. Results revealed that predictive category cueing was associated with both enhanced WM and LTM for faces, as well as baseline activity shifts in a face-selective region of the visual association cortex [i.e., fusiform face area (FFA)]. In addition, the degree of functional connectivity between FFA and right inferior frontal junction (IFJ), middle frontal gyrus (MFG), inferior frontal gyrus, and intraparietal sulcus correlated with the magnitude of prestimulus activity modulation in the FFA. In an opposing manner, prestimulus connectivity between FFA and posterior cingulate cortex, a region of the default network, negatively correlated with FFA activity modulation. Moreover, whereas FFA connectivity with IFJ and the precuneus predicted enhanced expectation-related WM performance, FFA connectivity with MFG predicted LTM improvements. These findings suggest a model of expectancy-mediated neural biasing, in which a single node (e.g., FFA) can be dynamically linked or disconnected from different brain regions depending on prestimulus expectations, and the strength of distinct connections is associated with WM or LTM benefits.