The vitamin D3 [1,25(OH) 2 D3], is a pleiotropic hormone, which regulates calcium homeostasis of the organism, induces differentiation and inhibits proliferation of various normal and cancer cells. 1 Evidence suggests different roles of vitamin D and its active metabolites in a large number of tissues. Nearly every tissue in the body has receptors for the active form of vitamin D, 1,25 dihydroxyvitamin D3 [1,25(OH) 2 D3] or calcitriol. The immunomodulatory role for 1,25(OH) 2 D3 was proposed more than 25 years ago. This latest function was essentially based on the finding that monocytes/macrophages from patients affected by the granulomatous disease sarcoidosis constitutively synthesize the active form of vitamin D3 [1,25(OH) 2 D3] from the precursor 25-hydroxyvitamin D (25OHD), as well as on the data indicating that the receptor for vitamin D (VDR) is detectable in activated, proliferating lymphocytes. 2 Nevertheless, only recently has a clearer picture of the function of 1,25(OH) 2 D3 as a determinant of immune responsiveness been obtained. The crucial role of 1,25(OH) 2 D3 in the immune system was confirmed by other evidence. First, the intracrine induction of antimicrobial activity by 1,25(OH) 2 D3 is a pivotal function of the monocyte/macrophage response to infection. Second, sub-optimal vitamin D status is a common peculiarity of many populations throughout the world, with the possible support of monocyte/macrophage metabolism of 25OHD and subsequent synthesis and action of 1,25(OH) 2 D3. 3 These observations suggested a mechanism whereby 1,25(OH) 2 D3 produced by monocytes could act upon adjacent T cells or B cells, but the consequence of such a system on normal immune regulation is still unclear. Currently, it is know that cutaneous immunity is managed by ultraviolet (UV) irradiation, which affects keratinocytes, antigen-presenting cells, such as epidermal Langerhans cells and T lymphocytes. Peripheral regulatory T cells are responsive to environmental stimuli including UV irradiation. The T-cell effector functions depend on the activation state of Langerhans cells, which can be influenced by UV irradiation. Following their encounter with exogenous antigens the epidermal Langerhans cells migrate to the skin-draining lymph nodes where they present skin-acquired antigens to naive T cells resulting in effector T-cell differentiation. Regulatory T cells induced by UV are expanded by UV-exposed cutaneous Langerhans cells. Recently, it has been shown that epidermal expression of 1,25(OH) 2 D3 connects the environment to the immune system via expansion of CD4 + CD25 +

Bifidobacterium longum with Fos and lifestyle modification, when compared to lifestyle modification alone, significantly reduces TNF-α, CRP, serum AST levels, HOMA-IR, serum endotoxin, steatosis, and the NASH activity index.

Echinococcosis or hydatid disease (HD) is a zoonosis caused by the larval stages of taeniid cestodes belonging to the genus Echinococcus. Hepatic echinococcosis is a life-threatening disease, mainly differentiated into alveolar and cystic forms, associated with Echinoccus multilocularis (E. multilocularis) and Echinococcus granulosus (E. granulosus) infection, respectively. Cystic echinococcosis (CE) has a worldwide distribution, while hepatic alveolar echinococcosis (AE) is endemic in the Northern hemisphere, including North America and several Asian and European countries, like France, Germany and Austria. E. granulosus young cysts are spherical, unilocular vesicles, consisting of an internal germinal layer and an outer acellular layer. Cyst expansion is associated with a host immune reaction and the subsequent development of a fibrous layer, called the pericyst; old cysts typically present internal septations and daughter cysts. E. multilocularis has a tumor-like, infiltrative behavior, which is responsible for tissue destruction and finally for liver failure. The liver is the main site of HD involvement, for both alveolar and cystic hydatidosis. HD is usually asymptomatic for a long period of time, because cyst growth is commonly slow; the most frequent symptoms are fatigue and abdominal pain. Patients may also present jaundice, hepatomegaly or anaphylaxis, due to cyst leakage or rupture. HD diagnosis is usually accomplished with the combined use of ultrasonography and immunodiagnosis; furthermore, the improvement of surgical techniques, the introduction of minimally invasive treatments [such as puncture, aspiration, injection, re-aspiration (PAIR)] and more effective drugs (such as benzoimidazoles) have deeply changed life expectancy and quality of life of patients with HD. The aim of this article is to provide an up-to-date review of biological, diagnostic, clinical and therapeutic aspects of hepatic echinococcosis.

L-carnitine supplementation to diet is useful for reducing TNF-alpha and CRP, and for improving liver function, glucose plasma level, lipid profile, HOMA-IR, and histological manifestations of NASH.

The changing of omega-6/omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA) in the food supply of Western societies occurred over the last 150 years is thought to promote the pathogenesis of many inflammatory-related diseases, including depressive disorders. Several epidemiological studies reported a significant inverse correlation between intake of oily fish and depression or bipolar disorders. Studies conducted specifically on the association between omega-3 intake and depression reported contrasting results, suggesting that the preventive role of omega-3 PUFA may depend also on other factors, such as overall diet quality and the social environment. Accordingly, tertiary prevention with omega-3 PUFA supplement in depressed patients has reached greater effectiveness during the last recent years, although definitive statements on their use in depression therapy cannot be yet freely asserted. Among the biological properties of omega-3 PUFA, their anti-inflammatory effects and their important role on the structural changing of the brain should be taken into account to better understand the possible pathway through which they can be effective both in preventing or treating depression. However, the problem of how to correct the inadequate supply of omega-3 PUFA in the Westernized countries' diet is a priority in order to set food and health policies and also dietary recommendations for individuals and population groups.