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A systematic review exploring patterns of use of e liquid flavours and associations with continued vaping, tobacco smoking uptake, or cessation. Addiction.

While reformulation across the entire Australian fast-food supply has the potential to positively influence population nutrient intake, the introduction of menu labelling legislation in New South Wales, Australia did not lead to reduced energy contents across the five fast-food chains. To encourage widespread reformulation by the fast-food industry and enhance the impact of labelling legislation, the government should work with industry to set targets for reformulation of nutrient content.

M ore than 62% of Australian adults are overweight or obese. 1 Fast food consumption has strong associations with weight gain and increases risk of overweight and obesity. 2,3 Consumption of fast food is increasing in Australia. 4 Price is an influential determinant of food choice.5 Value for money has been shown to be especially important among adolescents. Lower-price diets are more likely to be energydense and nutrient-poor than more expensive diets. 7 Buying inexpensive, energy-dense foods may be perceived as a cost-effective means of meeting daily energy needs. 8An inverse relationship between energy density (ratio of kilojoules to grams) and energy cost (ratio of dollars to kilojoules) has been shown in grocery foods; lower energy density foods, such as fruits and vegetables, had higher energy costs than higher energy density foods, such as snack foods. 9,10Despite the influence of price in food selection and the health implications associated with frequent fast food consumption, Australian fast food energy costs have not been investigated. This study aimed to compare the energy costs of common fast foods, and examine the association between energy cost and energy density. MethodsBy observing menu boards or asking staff when menu boards were unavailable, researchers obtained price and energy (kilojoule) information for all limited-time-only items (n=54) and similar standard menu items (n=67) Standard menu items were those on the menu for at least 60 consecutive days; 13 limitedtime-only items were available fewer than 60 days. Initially, the menus for each chain were reviewed from the chain's website and a list of limited-time-only and standard products were identified and allocated into 18 different categories (Figure 1). Data were collected after 11 am to exclude breakfast items.Data were analysed using SPSS v19 for Windows (SPSS Inc., Chicago, USA). P-values of ≤0.05 were considered statistically significant. Energy costs in dollars per kilojoule ($/kJ) and energy density in kilojoules per gram (kJ/g) were calculated for all items. Mann-Whitney U tests were conducted to explore differences between standard and limited-time-only items. Spearman's rank-order correlation was used to examine any relationship between energy costs and energy densities. AbstractObjective: To examine the association between energy cost and energy density of fast food products.Methods: Twenty Sydney outlets of the five largest fast food chains were surveyed four times. Price and kilojoule data were collected for all limited-time-only menu items (n=54) and a sample of standard items (n=67). Energy cost ($/kilojoule) and energy density (kilojoules/gram) of menu items were calculated.Results: There was a significant inverse relationship between menu item energy density and energy cost (p<0.001). Salads had the highest energy cost, while value items, meals that included a dessert and family meals had the lowest. Conclusions:Fast food chains could provide a wider range of affordable, lower-energy foods, use proportional pricing of ...