Captive-bred Mus musculus (house mice) and Apodemus sylvaticus (field mice) were each infected with 50 oocysts of Toxoplasma gondii M1 strain per os and infection in them and their offspring was assessed by polymerase chain reaction (PCR) amplification of the T. gondii B1 gene in brain tissue and by serology, using the modified agglutination test (MAT). The chronically infected female A. sylvaticus (n = 10) and M. musculus (n = 23) were mated at least 6 weeks after infection (and subsequently to produce up to 6 litters) and their pups examined 3 weeks after weaning at 6 weeks of age. By PCR, in offspring of A. sylvaticus and M. musculus respectively, vertical transmission was demonstrated in 82.7% (n = 83) and 85.0% (n = 207) of all pups (N.S., P > 0.05), 95% (n = 21) and 100% (n = 30) of all litters (N.S., P > 0.05), with a mean (+/- S.E.) proportion of each litter infected of 0.87 (0.06) and 0.86 (0.04) (N.S., P > 0.05). There was no change in any of these variables between first and subsequent litters. By serology, whilst MAT suggested 100% vertical transmission in A. sylvaticus, it under-estimated rates of infection in offspring of M. musculus. A limited series of bioassays from M. musculus tissues confirmed the good correlation of PCR and the poor correlation of MAT with mouse inoculation. These results indicate that vertical transmission in A. sylvaticus and M. musculus is extremely efficient and probably endures for the life of the breeding female. This mechanism favours parasite transmission and dispersion by providing a potential reservoir of infection in hosts predated by the cat.

Neospora caninum is an apicomplexan, protozoan parasite, which causes severe disease in dogs and cattle. It has previously been isolated only in the United States. A 5-week-old Boxer pup with a progressive hindlimb paresis was diagnosed as suffering from neosporosis on the basis of clinical signs and the presence of anti-Neospora antibodies in it, 2 litter-mates and its dam. Despite treatment with sulphonamides, the pup was euthanased 3 days later. The diagnosis of neosporosis was confirmed by immunohistochemical examination of muscle and CNS tissue sections from the pup. Parasites were isolated into Vero cell culture from the cerebrum, and confirmed as Neospora caninum by immunofluorescence with specific antibody, tachyzoite ultrastructure and 16S-like ribosomal RNA sequences. This isolate (designated NC-Liverpool) has been continuously passaged every 7-10 days. Its growth characteristics, ultrastructure and antigenic profile, as revealed by immunoblotting, have revealed no major differences from the American NC-1 isolate. Furthermore, no difference was seen when comparing the sequences of 16S-like ribosomal RNA and the ITS1 region of the two isolates.

IntroductionCurrently women of any age, including under 16-year-olds, can access confidential contraceptive services through their own or another general practitioner (GP), and through community family planning clinics (FPCs). Where available, teenagers may also use specialist services such as Brook Advisory Centres or local teenage drop-ins. About 80% of all women now receive contraceptive services from a GP. 1 In rural areas the percentage may be higher as the GP is often the only service available locally to meet the sexual health needs of teenagers, transport to other locations often being infrequent and costly.In North and East Devon, the health district studied for this paper, there is only one FPC which opens every day, Monday to Saturday. Whilst this clinic is very well used by teenagers, 2 its location renders it inaccessible to many of those in the district. The availability, cost and frequency of public transport are particularly important for teenagers. While there are also 14 satellite clinics in the district, including three at colleges for post-16s, one of the clinics is open twice a week and the rest on a weekly basis, so these are not ideal for teenagers' needs. A local survey of Year 9 and Year 11 rural school children showed that over onethird did not know the role of a FPC. They are unlikely to access a service they do not relate to their own needs. 3 School nurses may also provide some sexual health services for teenagers including the provision of condoms, pregnancy tests and referrals to local GPs or FPCs for emergency and other methods of contraception. Where rural teenagers travel into school by bus, this has the advantage of serving a larger population than is possible in more remote areas. However, school nurses are only on site for part of the week and the service varies greatly between schools. It may be particularly restricted where there is no sixth form. In addition, fear of parental disapproval may prevent school nurses from widely publicising services they do offer. 4 Given that current service provision in the district relies heavily on the ability of general practices to meet the needs of sexually active teenagers, it is important to understand the ways in which they can and cannot respond to those needs. A key issue in providing appropriate sexual health services for teenagers is confidentiality. Allen 5 described confidentiality as 'the single most important factor in designing services for young people'. Since the Fraser ruling in 1985, 6 doctors have followed guidelines enabling them to provide confidential sexual health care to under 16s, providing they are judged in need of this care and mature enough to understand their treatment. However, confidentiality for teenagers involves more than simply having faith that a health professional will not report an encounter to parents, relatives or teachers, although this may still be a concern for a minority. Other issues may be equally or even more important. These include problems of privacy, anonymity and visibility in small co...