No abstract

Attachment investigators provide evidence that security takes similar forms and has similar antecedents and consequences in diverse cultures. However, there is also evidence that security differs across culture, and the nature of the similarities and differences are not well understood. A total of 39 mothers from the United States and 32 mothers from Japan were interviewed to assess beliefs about attachment and amae (expectations of indulgence and interdependence). Cultural similarities involved the manifestation of security and insecurity, the role of maternal responsiveness, and the link between security and desirable child characteristics. Cultural differences also emerged: There is more exploration associated with security and more anger and aggression associated with insecurity in the United States, and U.S. mothers link security with a much greater range of positive attributes than do Japanese mothers, who more often link security with accommodative behaviors. In mildly stressful situations, Japanese mothers more often attribute the child's inappropriate behavior to needs for security and interdependence and less often attribute these behaviors to egotism and self-maximization.

The nomenclature used to describe animals working in roles supporting people can be confusing. The same term may be used to describe different roles, or two terms may mean the same thing. This confusion is evident among researchers, practitioners, and end users. Because certain animal roles are provided with legal protections and/or government-funding support in some jurisdictions, it is necessary to clearly define the existing terms to avoid confusion. The aim of this paper is to provide operationalized definitions for nine terms, which would be useful in many world regions: “assistance animal”, “companion animal”, “educational/school support animal”, “emotional support animal”, “facility animal”, “service animal”, “skilled companion animal”, “therapy animal”, and “visiting/visitation animal”. At the International Society for Anthrozoology (ISAZ) conferences in 2018 and 2020, over 100 delegates participated in workshops to define these terms, many of whom co-authored this paper. Through an iterative process, we have defined the nine terms and explained how they differ from each other. We recommend phasing out two terms (i.e., “skilled companion animal” and “service animal”) due to overlap with other terms that could potentially exacerbate confusion. The implications for several regions of the world are discussed.

Japanese and U.S. sixth, eighth, and tenth graders ( N = 2141) responded to questionnaires asking whom they depended on in six contexts of need. These contexts were: morning awakening, physical illness, emotional upset, help with homework, causing a problem, and guidance in extracurricular activities. Findings indicated that, relative to culture, contextual effects exerted an equally if not more powerful effect on students' responses. In line with traditional cross-national theorizing, U.S. youth were, overall, more self-reliant than their Japanese peers. In contrast to such theorizing, U.S. students were more interdependent with family, and Japanese students were more interdependent with peers, than their counterparts in the other country. Furthermore, both Japanese and U.S. youth showed similar age-related decreases in interdependence with family and increases in interdependence with peers. Results are discussed in terms of active dyadic help-seeking versus conceptualized notions of social identity, and recent theories of development, culture, and the self.

A comparison of the child rearing attitudes of Japanese and American mothers Kakinuma M. A comparison of the child rearing attitudes of Japanese and American mothers. Childhood 1993:1: 235-242. © Munksgaard, 1993.An examination of parenting magazines in Japan and the US reveals that Japanese mothers tend to seek advice from fellow mothers while American mothers tend to seek updated information on child-rearing practices. Up to 60% of articles in Japanese magazines are based on some form of readers' input while less than 10% of articles in American magazines are. Content analysis of letters reveals that Japanese mothers often write to tell funny experiences or exchange ideas, while Americans write to comment on the content of the magazine articles. These differences seem to reflect differences in the child-rearing traditions of both countries. Japanese child rearing is more communally oriented and sharing plays an important role. American child rearing, however is a more private affair, where parents are responsible for gathering proper information.