This retrospective study compared the performance of medical students in multiple choice questions (MCQs) and short essay questions (SEQs). During the 3 year analysis, 533 students had an average score of 51.34% (SD 9.9) in the SEQ and 64.71%(SD 9.9)in the MCQs. Regression analysis showed a significant correlation(r=0.64, P<0.01) between MCQs and SEQs. When student performance was grouped by final course grade, a statistically significant correlation between MCQs and SEQs scores existed only for the 405 students who received a passing grade (r=0.21, P<0.01). The MCQ and SEQ scores were not correlated for the 128 students who failed (r=0.11, P=0.08) or for 70 students who achieved distinctions (r=-0.27, P=0.13). MCQ scores were significantly higher (P<0.01) than SEQ for each of the groups when analyzed by the two-way ANOVA test. The result of this study suggests that for most students, the strong correlation between MCQ and SEQ indicates that student performance was independent of testing format. For students at either end of the performance spectrum, the lack of correlation suggests that the performance in one of the testing format had a strong influence on the final course grade. In addition, those students who failed the course were likely to be weak in both testing modalities, whereas students in all grade groups were more likely to perform better in the MCQs than SEQs.

INTRODUCTIONWorldwide, the number of deaths from cardiovascular diseases (CVDs) was estimated at 17.3 million per year, and it is expected to increase to approximately 23.6 million patients by 2030.1 While the prevalence and mortality due to CHD is declining in the developed nations the same cannot be held true for developing countries. There has been an alarming increase over the past two decades in the prevalence of CHD and cardiovascular mortality in India and other south Asian countries. 2 The incidence of cardiovascular diseases has been increasing in recent decade. It is the most common cause of death in the developed as well as developing countries. Over 30% of all deaths every year attributed to cardiovascular disease. Currently, important interventions to prevent and to treat CVD are available, e.g. pharmacological treatment of elevated low density lipoprotein (LDL) cholesterol levels elevated blood pressure and inhibiting platelet function with statins, anti-hypertensive agents (thiazides, beta blockers, calcium channel blockers, angiotensin converting enzyme (ACE) inhibitors, or angiotensin II receptor blockers (ARBs), etc. and antiplatelet agents e.g. Low dose aspirin, respectively. [4][5][6][7][8][9] In this scenario, the large number of cardiovascular agents are used in population worldwide. Considering the increased use of cardiovascular drugs and its limitations in pre-marketing ABSTRACT Background: Cardiovascular disease is very prevalent in India. So, use of cardiovascular drugs is also more. So, it is very important to keep watch on adverse drug reactions. Aim of this study was to assess the pattern of adverse drug reactions (ADRs) reported with cardiovascular drugs in a tertiary care institute. Methods: The study was carried out in medicine department of a tertiary care hospital over a period of one year. Each ADR was analysed for demographic data, causality, relationship between frequency of ADRs and the number of drugs used etc. In statistical analysis Microsoft excel 2013, SPSS software was used. Results: A total of 136 patients, 58 (43%) men and 78 (57%) women, using cardiovascular medications reported ADRs during the entire study period. Total 168 ADRs were reported out of which, Amlodipine (causing headache and edema feet) was the most common drug with 51 (30.3%) ADR's followed by Enalapril, Aspirin and Isosorbide Dinitrate with 37 (22%), 24 (14.2%), 23 (13.6%) ADRs respectively. Most common ADR was headache (due to amlodipine and Isosorbide di nitrate) affecting 38 (22.62%) cases followed by dry cough 37 (22.02%) cases, edema feet 36 (21.43%), gastritis 24 (14.29%) and 10 (5.95%) of nausea. Conclusions: Monitoring ADRs in patients using cardiovascular drugs is a matter of importance since this class of medicines are mostly used as multidrug therapy and always prone for ADRs.

Background Skin is the largest and the most exposed organ of human body .The prevalence of Dermatophytosis ,Acne and Eczema is more in general population. This study was planned to evaluate the utilization pattern of drugs in Acne vulgaris, Tinea infections and Eczema and find out the cost of drug per prescription that the health care system spends for disease conditions under study. This study was an Observational study carried out in patients at Methods tending the Dermatology OPD. The data was collected from the prescriptions of patients after getting approval from Institutional Ethics Committee for a continuous period of one year. In present study, the average number of drugs Resultsprescribed per prescription in patients with Tinea infections, Acne Vulgaris and Eczema were 1.87, 1.43 and 2.4. The percentage of generic drugs prescribed were 100%.No any Fixed Drug Combinations, Multivitamins or Injectable drugs were used. The drugs prescribed from Essential Drug List were 100% for Tinea and Acne while 75% for eczema patients. The mean cost of drug per prescription for treatment of Tinea infection, Eczema and Acne vulgaris was Rs.6.86, Rs.7.96 and Rs.15.21 respectively. This study suggests t Conclusion- he prescribers to consider factors as polypharmacy, rationality of prescription and per prescription cost benefit before writing any prescriptions. There was a significant cost difference with respect to the previous study; with the current study finding cheaper alternatives for per prescription cost for treatment of said conditions.

Blood glucose, protein, AST and ALT activities were not significantly altered but the hemoglobin level and total and live sperm count decreased significantly in the study group compared to the control group. Residual level of cefpodoxime was highest in liver followed by kidney and other study organs. Therefore, the drug should be used in human beings judiciously and further study on human subjects is warranted.

Background: Diabetes mellitus (DM) is a chronic metabolic disorder requiring lifelong treatment. Due to rapid expansion of urbanization, unhealthy diet habits and sedentary lifestyle, the incidence of DM is increasing. The chronic nature of DM causes significant personal suffering and economic difficulty to families. The was aimed at investigating the cost difference in various brands of the same oral anti-diabetic drug.Methods: The minimum and the maximum cost in rupees (INR) of a particular anti-diabetic drug manufactured by various pharmaceutical companies were obtained from current index of medical specialties (CIMS) website, Indian drug review (IDR) 2021 issue and National pharmaceutical pricing authority-pharma sahi daam. The cost ratio and percentage cost variation were noted for each brand.Results: Amongst single drug therapy, metformin 500 mg sustained release showed highest price variation (3668%). Minimum cost variation was found with glipizide 2.5 mg (65%). Amongst the fixed dose combinations, highest cost variation was seen with glimepiride 2 mg+metformin 1000 mg (2703%) while minimum cost variation was found with repaglinide 1 mg+voglibose 0.3 mg (29%).Conclusions: A noticeable cost variation was found in different brands of the same anti-diabetic drug. Prescribing a more expensive brand when a cheaper one is available can burden the patient financially and thus reduce patient compliance. In addition, the Government should also include more anti-diabetic drugs under the price control policy to ensure that affordable and efficacious medicines are available to all.Background:  Diabetes mellitus (DM) is a chronic metabolic disorder requiring lifelong treatment. Due to rapid expansion of urbanization, unhealthy diet habits and sedentary life style, the incidence of DM is increasing .The chronic nature of DM causes significant personal suffering and economic difficulty to families. The present study aims at investigating the cost difference in various brands of the same oral anti-diabetic drug.Methods: The minimum and the maximum cost in rupees (INR) of a particular anti-diabetic drug manufactured by various brands were obtained from Current Index of Medical Specialties (CIMS) website, Indian Drug Review (IDR) 2021 issue and National Pharmaceutical Pricing Authority – Pharma sahi daam. The cost ratio and percentage cost variation were noted for each brand.Results: Amongst single drug therapy, Metformin 500mg Sustained Release showed highest price variation (3668%). Minimum cost variation was found with Glipizide 2.5mg (65%).Amongst the fixed dose combinations, highest cost variation was seen with Glimepiride 2mg + Metformin 1000mg (2703%) while minimum cost variation was found with Repaglinide 1mg + Voglibose 0.3mg (29%). Conclusions: A noticeable cost variation was found in different brands of the same anti-diabetic drug. Prescribing a more expensive brand when a cheaper one is available can burden the patient financially and thus reduce patient compliance. In addition, the Government should also include more anti-diabetic drugs under the price control policy to ensure that affordable and efficacious medicines are available to all. Keywords: Anti-diabetic agents, Cost variation, Pharmaco-economics, Adherence, Brands   Background:  Diabetes mellitus (DM) is a chronic metabolic disorder requiring lifelong treatment. Due to rapid expansion of urbanization, unhealthy diet habits and sedentary life style, the incidence of DM is increasing .The chronic nature of DM causes significant personal suffering and economic difficulty to families. The present study aims at investigating the cost difference in various brands of the same oral anti-diabetic drug.Methods: The minimum and the maximum cost in rupees (INR) of a particular anti-diabetic drug manufactured by various brands were obtained from Current Index of Medical Specialties (CIMS) website, Indian Drug Review (IDR) 2021 issue and National Pharmaceutical Pricing Authority – Pharma sahi daam. The cost ratio and percentage cost variation were noted for each brand.Results: Amongst single drug therapy, Metformin 500mg Sustained Release showed highest price variation (3668%). Minimum cost variation was found with Glipizide 2.5mg (65%).Amongst the fixed dose combinations, highest cost variation was seen with Glimepiride 2mg + Metformin 1000mg (2703%) while minimum cost variation was found with Repaglinide 1mg + Voglibose 0.3mg (29%). Conclusions: A noticeable cost variation was found in different brands of the same anti-diabetic drug. Prescribing a more expensive brand when a cheaper one is available can burden the patient financially and thus reduce patient compliance. In addition, the Government should also include more anti-diabetic drugs under the price control policy to ensure that affordable and efficacious medicines are available to all. Keywords: Anti-diabetic agents, Cost variation, Pharmaco-economics, Adherence, Brands   Background:  Diabetes mellitus (DM) is a chronic metabolic disorder requiring lifelong treatment. Due to rapid expansion of urbanization, unhealthy diet habits and sedentary life style, the incidence of DM is increasing .The chronic nature of DM causes significant personal suffering and economic difficulty to families. The present study aims at investigating the cost difference in various brands of the same oral anti-diabetic drug.Methods: The minimum and the maximum cost in rupees (INR) of a particular anti-diabetic drug manufactured by various brands were obtained from Current Index of Medical Specialties (CIMS) website, Indian Drug Review (IDR) 2021 issue and National Pharmaceutical Pricing Authority – Pharma sahi daam. The cost ratio and percentage cost variation were noted for each brand.Results: Amongst single drug therapy, Metformin 500mg Sustained Release showed highest price variation (3668%). Minimum cost variation was found with Glipizide 2.5mg (65%).Amongst the fixed dose combinations, highest cost variation was seen with Glimepiride 2mg + Metformin 1000mg (2703%) while minimum cost variation was found with Repaglinide 1mg + Voglibose 0.3mg (29%). Conclusions: A noticeable cost variation was found in different brands of the same anti-diabetic drug. Prescribing a more expensive brand when a cheaper one is available can burden the patient financially and thus reduce patient compliance. In addition, the Government should also include more anti-diabetic drugs under the price control policy to ensure that affordable and efficacious medicines are available to all. Keywords: Anti-diabetic agents, Cost variation, Pharmaco-economics, Adherence, Brands