Although human motivation has been well studied, studies manipulating human motivation are scarce. The present study aimed to induce the hot-hand phenomenon using a pseudo success situation. Under the framework of the two-factor theory of emotion, we investigated the effect of a deviant situation, such as continuously winning or losing, on mental attitudes and the evaluation of the results using the contingent-negative variation (CNV) and feedback-locked P3 (FB-P3). The CNV is a neural activity that reflects emotional expectations and motoric preparation. The FB-P3 is a neural activity that is induced by external feedback. Fifteen participants performed an S1-S2 reaction time task with an opponent in the following three competitive conditions: actual feedback (feedback is contingent on performance), winning streak (WS; tendency to win regardless of performance), and losing streak (LS; tendency to lose regardless of performance). Each condition was characterized by the winning rate (49.26%, 80%, and 20%). Moreover, a principal component analysis was performed on the CNV data to determine the distinct temporal neural activity. The principal component analysis identified three components (auditory P2, early CNV, and late CNV) in the original CNV. The auditory P2 and the occurrence of pleasant emotions were higher in the WS condition than in the LS condition. However, the early CNV, late CNV, and FB-P3 were higher in the LS condition than in the WS condition. These findings confirmed that the losing streak situation induced an unpleasant emotion. However, the losing streak situation appeared to improve the mental attitude to prepare for faster responses and enhance the interest in the results.

In humans, the expectation process in decision making has not been as thoroughly investigated as the evaluation process. The present study focused on the interaction between probabilistic saliency and motivational saliency during expectation and evaluation periods using stimulus-preceding negativity (SPN) and reward positivity (RewP). Twenty healthy participants performed a modified monetary-incentive delay task under reward-approach and punishment-avoidance conditions. Each condition was characterized by the likely outcome (reward only, punishment only) to manipulate motivational saliency. The task difficulty was regulated to control for probabilistic saliency, and the error trial was set as a probabilistically salient event (75% correct, 25% error). The results demonstrated that there was a larger SPN in the 25%-error trial than the 75%-correct trial and that it was left hemisphere predominant. Furthermore, there was an interaction between probabilistic and motivational saliency such that the SPN in the error trial was larger in the punishment-avoidance than in the reward-approach condition at Fz and at the right hemisphere. In contrast, RewP was only significantly different from zero in the 75%-correct trial in the reward-approach condition. These results confirm that the SPN increases with probabilistic saliency and that probabilistically salient events may intervene in the motivational saliency of the outcome; furthermore, that RewP reflects the weighted positive value of the outcome for reward but not the weighted negative value of the outcome for punishment. We discuss the interaction between probabilistic saliency and motivational saliency on SPN and its left hemisphere predominance based on the functions of the insular cortex.

No abstract

Awareness of failure is essential for efficient motor learning. We verified the effect of motivation using monetary reward and punishment on internal performance monitoring (PM) activity by assessing correct response negativity (CRN) and error-related negativity (ERN) to evaluate enhanced detection of error. Twenty healthy participants performed cognitive tasks under the reward-approach (RAP) condition, wherein a reward was provided for every correct trial, and the punishment-avoidance (PAV) condition, in which a fine was imposed for every error trial. We applied a behavioral inhibition system (BIS) and behavioral activation system (BAS) scale presenting a personality state of approach and avoidance toward reward and punishment. The ERN was greater in the PAV condition than that in the RAP condition. The physiological source of error related activation (ERN-CRN) was the cingulate cortex using standardized low-resolution brain electromagnetic tomography (sLORETA). In addition, the physiological source in the background of the ERN increase under the PAV condition was the orbitofrontal cortex. Furthermore, there was a negative correlation (r=-0.497) between the increase in ERN ( ERN=ERNPAV-ERNRAP) and BAS scale score (the tendency to approach the reward). These results confirm that PM activity related to detection of error in the orbitofrontal cortex was increased by punishment. Moreover, the increase in PM activity in the error trial tends to decrease for a subject with a high tendency to approach the reward.

No abstract