In this review article we examine the question as to which parameters of facial attraction are amenable to measurement and which tools are available to perform these measurements. The evaluation of facial images, artistic standards, cephalometry, and anthropometry are discussed. Furthermore, we consider how the attractiveness of a face is influenced by symmetry, averageness and distinguishing features such as dental esthetics or gender specific characteristics. There is a shared concept of what constitutes an "ideal" face. Anthropometric methods are preferable to cephalometric methods in determining the "ideal" face's dimensions, since anthropometric methods are valid, three-dimensional, non-invasive, suitable for a great variety of purposes, and easy to implement. Symmetry and averageness play important roles in determining the attractiveness of a face; although distinguishing features make it extraordinarily beautiful. Such features make a female face appear both child like and mature as well as expressive. Women's preferences as to what constitutes a particularly attractive male face are controversial, since female observers are greatly influenced by their menstrual cycles or their environment when responding to male faces. Finally, allowance has to be made for the fact that the ideal of beauty is subject to certain fluctuations in fashion.

The straight average face is perceived as most attractive by representative German populations today. Dentists make clearer gradual distinctions in their perceptions than do laypersons.

The straight-average face was perceived as being the most attractive by representative populations in Germany. On the whole, the university graduates were more critical in their ratings than non-graduates.

This review article addresses the question as to what methods can be used to investigate cranial structure and growth development in children 4 to 6 years old, and what the relevant reference values are for this age group. We screened the literature for epidemiological, longitudinal and cross-sectional studies investigating healthy children 4 to 6 years old without abnormalities and orthodontic therapy. Radiographic cephalometry is a practical, valid tool for analyzing craniofacial structure and growth processes. But it has several disadvantages, including the use of ionizing radiation, measuring points that are difficult to locate, no means of radiographic enlargement without distorting reference values, and the data's two-dimensionality. Anthropometry is another procedure for creating reference values for the craniofacial structure in children. Its advantages over radiographic cephalometry include three-dimensional results and no radiation exposure. Moreover, it yields precise and valid results for a wide variety of potential applications. In addition to these procedures, there are other techniques with which cranial structure and growth development in children 4 to 6 years old can be investigated. Those reported in the literature in this connection include standardized photographs, the creation of computerized and magnetic resonance images, and investigations performed on dry skulls. In short, there is great demand nowadays for investigations aimed at developing reference values for Caucasian children 4 to 6 years old. Radiographic cephalometry and anthropometry are two very common methods. Anthropometry is expected to become increasingly important because it involves no exposure to radiation.