Gene-selective epigenetic reprogramming and shifts in cellular bioenergetics develop when Toll-like receptors (TLR) recognize and respond to systemic life-threatening infections. Using a human monocyte cell model of endotoxin tolerance and human leukocytes from acute systemic inflammation with sepsis, we report that energy sensor sirtuin 1 (SIRT1) coordinates the epigenetic and bioenergy shifts. After TLR4 signaling, SIRT1 rapidly accumulated at the promoters of TNF-␣ and IL-1␤, but not IB␣; SIRT1 promoter binding was dependent on its co-factor, NAD ؉ . During this initial process, SIRT1 deacetylated RelA/ p65 lysine 310 and nucleosomal histone H4 lysine 16 to promote termination of NFB-dependent transcription. SIRT1 then remained promoter bound and recruited de novo induced RelB, which directed assembly of the mature transcription repressor complex that generates endotoxin tolerance. SIRT1 also promoted de novo expression of RelB. During sustained endotoxin tolerance, nicotinamide phosphoribosyltransferase (Nampt), the rate-limiting enzyme for endogenous production of NAD ؉ , and SIRT1 expression increased. The elevation of SIRT1 required protein stabilization and enhanced translation. To support the coordination of bioenergetics in human sepsis, we observed elevated NAD ؉ levels concomitant with SIRT1 and RelB accumulation at the TNF-␣ promoter of endotoxin tolerant sepsis blood leukocytes. We conclude that TLR4 stimulation and human sepsis activate pathways that couple NAD ؉ and its sensor SIRT1 with epigenetic reprogramming.Two cellular processes predictably accompany TLR-mediated acute systemic inflammation caused by sepsis, a highly destructive and often lethal process. The first process occurs when epigenetic alterations reprogram distinct functional sets of genes to both activate and repress transcription of hundreds of genes (1, 2); this transcriptome reprogramming generates the phenomenon known as endotoxin tolerance (3). Endotoxin tolerance requires TLR 3 receptor signaling of NFB master regulator, which first induces and then represses rapid response and potentially autotoxic proinflammatory TNF-␣ and IL-1␤. To control the initial recognition and response phases induced by TLR, gene-specific reprogramming selectively modifies chromatin structure and shifts nucleosomes on responsive euchromatin to form silent heterochromatin at acute proinflammatory genes; in contrast, genes encoding anti-inflammatory and antimicrobial mediators maintain responsive euchromatin (4, 5). This gene set-selective reprogramming generates a clinically relevant phenotypic transition from the hyperinflammatory to the hypoinflammatory endotoxin tolerant state, which may last hours, days, or weeks, depending on the strength of the initial TLR response (4, 5). The physiologic importance of endotoxin tolerance is still incompletely understood, but likely reflects an attempt to recover homeostasis (3).Others and we (6 -9) reported how temporal transitions in epigenetic programming alter the course of acute inflammation. NFB master ...

c Myeloid-derived suppressor cells (MDSCs) are a heterogeneous Gr1؉ CD11b ؉ population of immature cells containing granulocytic and monocytic progenitors, which expand under nearly all inflammatory conditions and are potent repressors of T-cell responses. Studies of MDSCs during inflammatory responses, including sepsis, suggest they can protect or injure. Here, we investigated MDSCs during early and late sepsis. To do this, we used our published murine model of cecal ligation and puncture (CLP)-induced polymicrobial sepsis, which transitions from an early proinflammatory phase to a late anti-inflammatory and immunosuppressive phase. We confirmed that Gr1 ؉ CD11b ؉ MDSCs gradually increase after CLP, reaching ϳ88% of the bone marrow myeloid series in late sepsis. Adoptive transfer of early (day 3) MDSCs from septic mice into naive mice after CLP increased proinflammatory cytokine production, decreased peritoneal bacterial growth, and increased early mortality. Conversely, transfer of late (day 12) MDSCs from septic mice had the opposite effects. Early and late MDSCs studied ex vivo also differed in their inflammatory phenotypes. Early MDSCs expressed nitric oxide and proinflammatory cytokines, whereas late MDSCs expressed arginase activity and anti-inflammatory interleukin 10 (IL-10) and transforming growth factor ␤ (TGF-␤). Late MDSCs had more immature CD31؉ myeloid progenitors and, when treated ex vivo with granulocyte-macrophage colony-stimulating factor (GM-CSF), generated fewer macrophages and dendritic cells than early MDSCs. We conclude that as the sepsis inflammatory process progresses, the heterogeneous MDSCs shift to a more immature state and from being proinflammatory to anti-inflammatory.

The interplay of transcription factors, histone modifiers, and DNA modification can alter chromatin structure that epigenetically controls gene transcription. During severe systemic inflammatory (SSI), the generation of facultative heterochromatin from euchromatin reversibly silences transcription of a set of acute proinflammatory genes. This gene-specific silencing is a salient feature of the endotoxin tolerant phenotype that is found in blood leukocytes of SSI patients and in a human THP-1 cell model of SSI. We previously reported that de novo induction of the NF-B transcription factor RelB by endotoxin activation is necessary and sufficient for silencing transcription of acute proinflammatory genes in the endotoxin tolerant SSI phenotype. Here, we examined how RelB silences gene expression and found that RelB induces facultative heterochromatin formation by directly interacting with the histone H3 lysine 9 methyltransferase G9a. We found that heterochromatin protein 1 (HP1) and G9a formed a complex at the interleukin-1␤ promoter that is dependent on the Rel homology domain (RHD) of RelB. RelB knockdown disassociated the complex and reversed transcription silencing. We also observed that whereas RelB chromatin binding was independent of G9a, RelB transcriptional silencing required G9a accumulation at the silenced promoter. Binding between RelB and G9a was confirmed by glutathione S-transferase pulldown in vitro and coimmunoprecipitation in vivo. These data provide novel insight into how RelB is required to initiate silencing in the phenotype associated with severe systemic inflammation in humans, a disease with major morbidity and mortality.Inflammation is an evolutionarily conserved stereotypic stress response primarily orchestrated by temporal alterations in gene expression, with important contributions from complement, coagulation, and neurogenic processes (1, 2). The genetic information encoded to generate inflammation regulates distinct functional sets of genes, including pro-and anti-inflammatory modifiers, directors of cell death, and mediators of cell respiration and metabolism (3). The initiating stage of virtually all inflammation depends on sensory receptors coupled to intracellular signals that activate the immunity master regulator NF-B to generate p65 and p50 transactivating heterodimers at euchromatin promoters of a set of early response proinflammatory genes. When spread throughout the circulation, this early stage may precipitate the extreme stress response of severe systemic inflammation (SSI). 4 Later stages of inflammation reprogramming often require protein synthesis and induce expression of distinct sets of genes with anti-inflammatory, survival, and energy regulation (4, 5). Recent data in humans from our laboratory and in animals from others highlight the role of epigenetics in regulating gene expression in the SSI phenotype (6 -11). These epigenetic events provide specificity and plasticity among distinct sets of genes and depend on varied chromatin structure and modifications rather t...

Sustained silencing of potentially autotoxic acute proinflammatory genes like tumor necrosis factor ␣ (TNF␣) occurs in circulating leukocytes following the early phase of severe systemic inflammation. Aspects of this gene reprogramming suggest the involvement of epigenetic processes. We used THP-1 human promonocytes, which mimic gene silencing when rendered endotoxin-tolerant in vitro, to test whether TNF␣ proximal promoter nucleosomes and transcription factors adapt to an activation-specific profile by developing characteristic chromatinbased silencing marks. We found increased TNF␣ mRNA levels in endotoxin-responsive cells that was preceded by dissociation of heterochromatin-binding protein 1␣, demethylation of nucleosomal histone H3 lysine 9 (H3(Lys 9 )), increased phosphorylation of the adjacent serine 10 (H3(Ser 10 )), and recruitment of NF-B RelA/p65 to the TNF␣ promoter. In contrast, endotoxintolerant cells repressed production of TNF␣ mRNA, retained binding of heterochromatin-binding protein 1␣, sustained methylation of H3(Lys 9 ), reduced phosphorylation of H3(Ser 10 ), and showed diminished binding of NF-B RelA/p65 to the TNF␣ promoter. Similar levels of NF-B p50 occurred at the TNF␣ promoter in the basal state, during active transcription, and in the silenced phenotype. RelB, which acts as a repressor of TNF␣ transcription, remained bound to the promoter during silencing. These results support an immunodeficiency paradigm where epigenetic changes at the promoter of acute proinflammatory genes mediate their repression during the late phase of severe systemic inflammation.Gene reprogramming during severe systemic inflammation generates, among other patterns, silencing of acute proinflammatory genes, such as TNF␣ 2 and IL-1␤, that initiate acute systemic inflammation and damage to multiple organs (1, 2). The silencing of acute proinflammatory genes, which normally follows an initial activation phase (3), is clinically relevant in humans because it participates in generating an acquired state of immunodeficiency that correlates with poor prognosis and increased mortality (4). Gene silencing as a result of disrupted transcription occurs in circulating and tissue leukocytes during severe systemic inflammation in animals and humans (2, 5, 6). The silenced component of gene reprogramming is characterized by a tolerance to endotoxin and can persist for days or even weeks (5). Endotoxin tolerance is defined by the repressed expression of a set of proinflammatory genes in response to the stimulation of the Toll-like receptor 4 by endotoxin. Endotoxin tolerance is constitutively present in blood leukocytes obtained from humans and animals with severe systemic inflammation and can be generated in vitro by using endotoxin as a primary stimulus of macrophages (7).The complex mechanisms responsible for gene silencing are regulated at many levels and continue to emerge. At the level of chromatin, covalent modifications of the NH 2 -terminal tails of the four core histones (H2A, H2B, H3, and H4) play an essential role ...

TNF␣ gene expression is silenced in the endotoxin tolerant phenotype that develops in blood leukocytes after the initial activation phase of severe systemic inflammation or sepsis. The silencing phase can be mimicked in vitro by LPS stimulation. We reported that the TNF␣ transcription is disrupted in endotoxin tolerant THP-1 human promonocyte due to changes in transcription factor binding and enrichment with histone H3 dimethylated on lysine 9 (H3K9). Here we show that the TNF␣ promoter is hypermethylated during endotoxin tolerance and that H3K9 methylation and DNA methylation interact to silence TNF␣ expression. Chromatin immunoprecipitation and RNA interference analysis demonstrated that, in tolerant cells, TNF␣ promoter is bound by the H3K9 histone methyltransferase G9a which dimethylates H3K9 and creates a platform for HP1 binding, leading to the recruitment of the DNA methyltransferase Dnmt3a/b and an increase in promoter CpG methylation. Knockdown of HP1 resulted in a decreased Dnmt3a/b binding, sustained G9a binding, and a modest increase in TNF␣ transcription, but had no effect on H3K9 dimethylation. In contrast, G9a knockdown-disrupted promoter silencing and restored TNF␣ transcription in tolerant cells. This correlated with a near loss of H3K9 dimethylation, a significant decrease in HP1 and Dnmt3a/b binding and promoter CpG methylation. Our results demonstrate a central role for G9a in this process and suggest that histone methylation and DNA methylation cooperatively interact via HP1 to silence TNF␣ expression during endotoxin tolerance and may have implication for proinflammatory gene silencing associated with severe systemic inflammation.Epigenetic mechanisms generate heritable marks on DNA and N-terminal tails of histones that maintain stable patterns of gene expression and are crucial in regulating gene activity as they impact chromatin structure and dynamics. These chromatin-based modifications control the recruitment of specific transcription factors and/or chromatin effectors, thereby providing a mechanism by which histones and DNA modifications regulate gene transcription (reviewed in Refs. 1-3). Methylation of histone H3 on lysine 9 (H3K9) and DNA on 5-cytosine bases, within the context of CpG dinucleotides, are two epigenetic marks whose increased levels are associated with heterochromatin formation and transcriptional silencing of several gene promoters (4).H3K9 can exist in mono-, di-, or trimethylated state. Mono-and dimethylation are catalyzed by the histone methyltransferase G9a, whereas trimethylation is catalyzed by the methyltransferase SUV39h and is predominant in pericentric (constitutive) heterochromatin domains (1, 5). While G9a can also trimethylate H3K9 in vitro (6), it is a major histone methyltransferase for mono-and dimethylation of H3K9 in euchromatic (regulated) domains (7). Methylated H3K9 serves as a docking site for chromatin modifiers such as the heterochromatin-binding protein 1 (HP1), 2 which mediates heterochromatin formation and is implicated in gene silencing (4,...