Eukaryotic GCN5 acetyltransferases influence diverse biological processes by acetylating histones and non-histone proteins and regulating chromatin and gene-specific transcription as part of multiprotein complexes. In lower eukaryotes and invertebrates, these complexes include the yeast ADA complex that is still incompletely understood; the SAGA (Spt-Ada-Gcn5 acetylase) complexes from yeast to Drosophila that are mostly coactivators; and the ATAC (Ada Two-A containing) complex, only known in Drosophila and still poorly characterized. In contrast, vertebrate organisms, express two paralogous GCN5-like acetyltransferases (GCN5 and PCAF), which have been found so far only in SAGA-type complexes referred to hereafter as the STAGA (SPT3-TAF9-GCN5/PCAF acetylase) complexes. We now report the purification and characterization of vertebrate (human) ATAC-type complexes and identify novel components of STAGA. We show that human ATAC complexes incorporate in addition to GCN5 or PCAF (GCN5/PCAF), other epigenetic coregulators (ADA2-A, ADA3, STAF36, and WDR5), cofactors of chromatin assembly/remodeling and DNA replication machineries (POLE3/CHRAC17 and POLE4), the stress-and TGF␤-activated protein kinase (TAK1/MAP3K7) and MAP3-kinase regulator (MBIP), additional cofactors of unknown function, and a novel YEATS2-NC2␤ histone fold module that interacts with the TATA-binding protein (TBP) and negatively regulates transcription when recruited to a promoter. We further identify the p38 kinase-interacting protein (p38IP/ FAM48A) as a novel component of STAGA with distant similarity to yeast Spt20. These results suggest that vertebrate ATACtype and STAGA-type complexes link specific extracellular signals to modification of chromatin structure and regulation of the basal transcription machinery.Epigenetic information carried in the form of histone posttranslational modifications (or "marks") is essential for the proper expression, maintenance, and replication of eukaryotic genomes. These covalent modifications are deposited (or removed) by a variety of enzymes that are often part of large multiprotein "coregulator" complexes. These complexes are targeted to specific chromosomal loci by DNA-binding regulators and/or via direct docking to predeposited epigenetic marks (1

HIV-1 Tat is a key regulator of viral transcription, however little is known about the mechanisms that control its turnover in T cells. Here we use a novel proteomics technique, called DiffPOP, to identify the molecular target of JIB-04, a small molecule compound that potently and selectively blocks HIV-1 Tat expression, transactivation, and virus replication in T cell lines. Mass-spectrometry analysis of whole-cell extracts from 2D10 Jurkat T cells revealed that JIB-04 targets Serine Hydroxymethyltransferase 2 (SHMT2), a regulator of glycine biosynthesis and an adaptor for the BRCC36 K63Ub-specific deubiquitinase in the BRISC complex. Importantly, knockdown of SHMT1,2 or BRCC36, or exposure of cells to JIB-04, strongly increased Tat K63Ub-dependent destruction via autophagy. Moreover, point mutation of multiple lysines in Tat, or knockdown of BRCC36 or SHMT1,2, was sufficient to prevent destruction of Tat by JIB-04. We conclude that HIV-1 Tat levels are regulated through K63Ub-selective autophagy mediated through SHMT1,2 and the BRCC36 deubiquitinase.

The factors and mechanisms underlying the differential activity and regulation of eukaryotic RNA polymerase II on different types of core promoters have remained elusive. Here we show that the architectural factor HMGA1 and the Mediator coregulator complex cooperate to enhance basal transcription from core promoters containing both a TATA box and an Initiator (INR) element but not from ''TATA-only'' core promoters. INR-dependent activation by HMGA1 and Mediator requires the TATA-binding protein (TBP)-associated factors (TAFs) within the TFIID complex and counteracts negative regulators of TBP/TATA-dependent transcription such as NC2 and Topoisomerase I. HMGA1 interacts with TFIID and Mediator and is required for the synergy of TATA and INR elements in mammalian cells. Accordingly, natural HMGA1-activated genes in embryonic stem cells tend to have both TATA and INR elements in a synergistic configuration. Our results suggest a core promoter-specific regulation of Mediator and the basal transcription machinery by HMGA1.

Epstein-Barr virus (EBV) nuclear antigen 2 (EBNA2) plays an important role in driving immortalization of EBV-infected B cells through regulating the expression of many viral and cellular genes. We report a structural study of the tumor suppressor BS69/ZMYND11 C-terminal region, comprised of tandem coiled-coil-MYND domains (BS69CC-MYND), in complex with an EBNA2 peptide containing a PXLXP motif. The coiled-coil domain of BS69 self-associates to bring two separate MYND domains in close proximity, thereby enhancing the BS69 MYND-EBNA2 interaction. ITC analysis of BS69CC-MYND with a C-terminal fragment of EBNA2 further suggests that the BS69CC-MYND homodimer synergistically binds to the two EBNA2 PXLXP motifs that are respectively located in the conserved regions CR7 and CR8. Furthermore, we showed that EBNA2 interacts with BS69 and down-regulates its expression at both mRNA and protein levels in EBV-infected B cells. Ectopic BS69CC-MYND is recruited to viral target promoters through interactions with EBNA2, inhibits EBNA2-mediated transcription activation, and impairs proliferation of lymphoblastoid cell lines (LCLs). Substitution of critical residues in the MYND domain impairs the BS69-EBNA2 interaction and abolishes the BS69 inhibition of the EBNA2-mediated transactivation and LCL proliferation. This study identifies the BS69 C-terminal domains as an inhibitor of EBNA2, which may have important implications in development of novel therapeutic strategies against EBV infection.

Gene-specific activation by enhancers involves their communication with the basal RNA polymerase II transcription machinery at the core promoter. Core promoters are diverse and may contain a variety of sequence elements such as the TATA box, the Initiator (INR), and the downstream promoter element (DPE) recognized, respectively, by the TATA-binding protein (TBP) and TBP-associated factors of the TFIID complex. Core promoter elements contribute to the gene selectivity of enhancers, and INR/DPE-specific enhancers and activators have been identified. Here, we identify a TATA box-selective activating sequence upstream of the human β-actin (ACTB) gene that mediates serum response factor (SRF)-induced transcription from TATA-dependent but not INR-dependent promoters and requires the TATA-binding/bending activity of TBP, which is otherwise dispensable for transcription from a TATA-less promoter. The SRF-dependent ACTB sequence is stereospecific on TATA promoters but activates in an orientation-independent manner a composite TATA/INR-containing promoter. More generally, we show that SRF-regulated genes of the actin/cytoskeleton/contractile family tend to have a TATA box. These results suggest distinct TATA-dependent and INR-dependent mechanisms of TFIID-mediated transcription in mammalian cells that are compatible with only certain stereospecific combinations of activators, and that a TBP-TATA binding mechanism is important for SRF activation of the actin/cytoskeleton-related gene family.