Microglia-astrocyte crosstalk has recently been at the forefront of glial research. Emerging evidence illustrates that microglia- and astrocyte-derived signals are the functional determinants for the fates of astrocytes and microglia, respectively. By releasing diverse signaling molecules, both microglia and astrocytes establish autocrine feedback and their bidirectional conversation for a tight reciprocal modulation during central nervous system (CNS) insult or injury. Microglia, the constant sensors of changes in the CNS microenvironment and restorers of tissue homeostasis, not only serve as the primary immune cells of the CNS but also regulate the innate immune functions of astrocytes. Similarly, microglia determine the functions of reactive astrocytes, ranging from neuroprotective to neurotoxic. Conversely, astrocytes through their secreted molecules regulate microglial phenotypes and functions ranging from motility to phagocytosis. Altogether, the microglia-astrocyte crosstalk is fundamental to neuronal functions and dysfunctions. This review discusses the current understanding of the intimate molecular conversation between microglia and astrocytes and outlines its potential implications in CNS health and disease.

TAR DNA-binding protein 43 (TDP-43) is a highly conserved nuclear RNA/DNA-binding protein involved in the regulation of RNA processing. The accumulation of TDP-43 aggregates in the central nervous system is a common feature of many neurodegenerative diseases, such as amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS), frontotemporal dementia (FTD), Alzheimer’s disease (AD), and limbic predominant age-related TDP-43 encephalopathy (LATE). Accumulating evidence suggests that prion-like spreading of aberrant protein aggregates composed of tau, amyloid-β, and α-synuclein is involved in the progression of neurodegenerative diseases such as AD and PD. Similar to those of prion-like proteins, pathological aggregates of TDP-43 can be transferred from cell-to-cell in a seed-dependent and self-templating manner. Here, we review clinical and experimental studies supporting the prion-like spreading of misfolded TDP-43 and discuss the molecular mechanisms underlying the propagation of these pathological aggregated proteins. The idea that misfolded TDP-43 spreads in a prion-like manner between cells may guide novel therapeutic strategies for TDP-43-associated neurodegenerative diseases.

Orosomucoid (ORM) is an acute-phase protein that belongs to the immunocalin subfamily, a group of small-molecule-binding proteins with immunomodulatory functions. Little is known about the role of ORM proteins in the CNS. The aim of the present study was to investigate the brain expression of ORM and its role in neuroinflammation. Expression of Orm2, but not Orm1 or Orm3, was highly induced in the mouse brain after systemic injection of lipopolysaccharide (LPS). Plasma levels of ORM2 were also significantly higher in patients with cognitive impairment than in normal subjects. RT-PCR, Western blot, and immunofluorescence analyses revealed that astrocytes are the major cellular sources of ORM2 in the inflamed mouse brain. Recombinant ORM2 protein treatment decreased microglial production of proinflammatory mediators and reduced microglia-mediated neurotoxicity LPS-induced microglial activation, proinflammatory cytokines in hippocampus, and neuroinflammation-associated cognitive deficits also decreased as a result of intracerebroventricular injection of recombinant ORM2 protein Moreover, lentiviral shRNA-mediated Orm2 knockdown enhanced LPS-induced proinflammatory cytokine gene expression and microglial activation in the hippocampus. Mechanistically, ORM2 inhibited C-C chemokine ligand 4 (CCL4)-induced microglial migration and activation by blocking the interaction of CCL4 with C-C chemokine receptor type 5. Together, the results from our cultured glial cells, mouse neuroinflammation model, and patient studies suggest that ORM2 is a novel mediator of astrocyte-microglial interaction. We also report that ORM2 exerts anti-inflammatory effects by modulating microglial activation and migration during brain inflammation. ORM2 can be exploited therapeutically for the treatment of neuroinflammatory diseases. Neural cell interactions are important for brain physiology and pathology. Particularly, the interaction between non-neuronal cells plays a central role in regulating brain inflammation, which is closely linked to many brain disorders. Here, we newly identified orosomucoid-2 (ORM2) as an endogenous protein that mediates such non-neuronal glial cell interactions. Based on the critical role of astrocyte-derived ORM2 in modulating microglia-mediated neuroinflammation, ORM2 can be exploited for the diagnosis, prevention, or treatment of devastating brain disorders that have a strong neuroinflammatory component, such as Alzheimer's disease, Parkinson's disease, amyotrophic lateral sclerosis, and multiple sclerosis.

Background Cytoplasmic inclusions of transactive response DNA binding protein of 43 kDa (TDP-43) in neurons and astrocytes are a feature of some neurodegenerative diseases, such as frontotemporal lobar degeneration with TDP-43 (FTLD-TDP) and amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS). However, the role of TDP-43 in astrocyte pathology remains largely unknown. Methods To investigate whether TDP-43 overexpression in primary astrocytes could induce inflammation, we transfected primary astrocytes with plasmids encoding Gfp or TDP-43-Gfp. The inflammatory response and upregulation of PTP1B in transfected cells were examined using quantitative RT-PCR and immunoblot analysis. Neurotoxicity was analysed in a transwell coculture system of primary cortical neurons with astrocytes and cultured neurons treated with astrocyte-conditioned medium (ACM). We also examined the lifespan, performed climbing assays and analysed immunohistochemical data in pan-glial TDP-43-expressing flies in the presence or absence of a Ptp61f RNAi transgene. Results PTP1B inhibition suppressed TDP-43-induced secretion of inflammatory cytokines (interleukin 1 beta (IL-1β), interleukin 6 (IL-6) and tumour necrosis factor alpha (TNF-α)) in primary astrocytes. Using a neuron-astrocyte coculture system and astrocyte-conditioned media treatment, we demonstrated that PTP1B inhibition attenuated neuronal death and mitochondrial dysfunction caused by overexpression of TDP-43 in astrocytes. In addition, neuromuscular junction (NMJ) defects, a shortened lifespan, inflammation and climbing defects caused by pan-glial overexpression of TDP-43 were significantly rescued by downregulation of ptp61f (the Drosophila homologue of PTP1B) in flies. Conclusions These results indicate that PTP1B inhibition mitigates the neuronal toxicity caused by TDP-43-induced inflammation in mammalian astrocytes and Drosophila glial cells.

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