Thrombin is a key enzyme of blood coagulation system which has multiple functions including pro- and anticoagulant, platelet aggregating and inflammatory activities. Unsurprisingly, this enzyme has been a target for anticoagulant drug development for decades. Among the most interesting direct thrombin inhibitors with intravenous administration route are the following ones: 1) hirudins, proteins with bivalent binding mode to the thrombin, 2) bivalirudin, the peptide with bivalent binding mode to the thrombin, 3) argatroban, the chemical that binds to the thrombin active site, and 4) G-quadruplex DNA aptamers, structured oligonucleotides with an affinity to protein-binding site of the thrombin. Efficiency of all these inhibitors has been studied in vivo in preclinical and clinical trials, as well as in vitro with various tests, allowing to compare them thoroughly. In the review three levels of comparison were used to highlight the features of each inhibitor: 1) thrombin inhibition constants as a characteristic of inhibitor potency in simple enzymatic system; 2) inhibition of fibrin fiber formation and thrombin generation in coagulation cascade as a characteristic of anticoagulant potency in human blood plasma; and 3) therapeutic doses used and therapeutic profiles obtained after intravenous administration into animals and humans. The data clearly demonstrate weak and strong aspects of thrombin binding aptamers providing a solid background for further novel anticoagulant development. </p><p>.

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The coagulation cascade is a series of sequential reactions of limited proteolysis of protein factors resulting in generation of thrombin. Thrombin mediates both positive and negative feedback in regulating this cascade by taking part in activation of several factors. Some thrombin inhibitors, by affecting positive feedback, inhibit generation of thrombin itself. In the current study, we used two thrombin inhibitors: argatroban, a low molecular weight reversible competitive inhibitor that binds to the active site, and bivalirudin, a bivalent oligopeptide that blocks the active site and binding center of protein substrates (exosite I). Appearance rate and total amount of thrombin were measured in a thrombin generation assay (TGA) using a fluorescent substrate. We found that argatroban slows the appearance of thrombin and lowers its amount. Bivalirudin also slows appearance of thrombin, but it does not decrease its amount, perhaps because the region being bound to the active site undergoes hydrolysis so that the inhibitor stops binding to thrombin. Many reactions of the coagulation cascade proceed on the surface of phospholipid micelles (PLMs). In the case of argatroban, PLMs do not affect the results of the TGA, whereas for bivalirudin they lower its inhibitory activity. It seems that PLMs stabilize protein complexes (wherein thrombin exosite I is hindered) mediating positive feedback in the coagulation cascade, e.g. complexes of thrombin with factor V and VIII.

Influenza virus hemagglutinins (HAs) are surface proteins that bind to sialic acid residues at the host cell surface and ensure further virus internalization. Development of methods for the inhibition of these processes drives progress in the design of new antiviral drugs. The state of the isolated HA (i.e. combining tertiary structure and extent of oligomerization) is defined by multiple factors, like the HA source and purification method, posttranslational modifications, pH, etc. The HA state affects HA functional activity and significantly impacts the results of numerous HA assays. In this review, we analyze the power and limitations of currently used HA assays regarding the state of HA.