The opinions of seven respondent groups about the relative importance of different practices pertaining to the welfare of Australian beef cattle, sheep and goats were surveyed. Respondent groups comprised farmers, livestock transportation representatives, veterinarians, meat processors, animal welfare advocates, animal welfare scientists and government officers. The survey consisted of a web-based adaptive conjoint analysis questionnaire, which was administered to a sample population that was selected randomly for large respondent groups and comprehensively for small groups. The hierarchy of opinion concerning the importance of the different beef cattle practices was: stockmanship . ground (road and rail) transport . spaying . food supply . dehorning . stunning . shelter . identification . pretransport food and water deprivation . castration . sea transport . mustering . confinement. For sheep/goat practices the hierarchy was: parasite control . mulesing . shelter . stockmanship . tail docking . ground transport . feeding . predation . stunning . castration . pretransport food and water deprivation . sea transport . mustering. The method of performing invasive procedures was perceived as less important than the provision of pain relief. Differences in opinion were evident between respondent groups, with animal welfare advocates tending to focus on painful procedures more than those with direct involvement in the industry.

We report a method for taking saliva samples from unrestrained, captive marmosets (Callithrix jacchus) to assess levels of free cortisol. Saliva samples can be obtained reliably, without any habituation, by encouraging the marmosets to lick and chew a cotton-wool bud coated in banana. Saliva is thus left on the bud. We also tested sweetened fruit-drink crystals and a number of other substances, but none of these attracted all of the marmosets, and even flavors that were effective once soon lost their attraction. The presence of banana in the samples collected was found to lower the measured concentration of cortisol; however, as shown in samples taken with and without the banana coating on the bud, it did so in a linear and consistent way, and did not vary significantly among subjects. Therefore, a simple conversion factor could be applied to correct for the presence of banana. A first experiment showed that the marmosets exhibited a rise in salivary cortisol levels in response to social isolation. A second experiment showed elevation of cortisol during a period when the marmosets were disturbed by increased human activity and noise levels in the building in which they were housed. Hence, this method of saliva sampling is a convenient, noninvasive means of assessing cortisol levels in marmosets.

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A noninvasive method of saliva sampling was used to assess the diurnal cortisol rhythm from 0900 to 1700 hr in the common marmoset (Callithrix jacchus). The levels of cortisol were highest in the morning and declined significantly over the day. Individual marmosets varied in the magnitude of the cycle, and the greatest individual variability occurred in the morning levels. The decrease in cortisol levels was more rapid after than before the midday feeding period in subordinate marmosets (aged 53-63 months) compared to dominant marmosets (aged 79-80 months), and overall, the levels of cortisol were higher in the subordinate marmosets. We found no effect of sex on cortisol levels across the cycle.

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