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Although the Indian Ocean dipole (IOD) and ENSO are significantly correlated, there are indeed some IODs independent of ENSO. In this research, the characteristics of independent IOD are investigated and a new triggering mechanism is proposed based on case study and statistical analysis. Results show that the independent IODs peak in an earlier season and have a weaker intensity compared with the IODs associated with ENSO. The wind anomaly associated with the independent IOD is very unique and shows a monsoonlike pattern, in addition to the equatorial easterly wind anomaly (EEWA) common to all IODs. The evolution of the EEWA associated with the independent IOD is well captured by the second EOF mode of the equatorial zonal wind interannual variability, suggesting that the independent IOD is an important climate mode inherent to the tropical Indian Ocean. The EEWA associated with the independent IOD is tightly linked to Indian summer monsoon activities in spring, and the convection anomalies associated with early summer monsoon onset in the Bay of Bengal plays a key role in inducing the EEWA. The EEWA can persist through spring and summer and causes a series of processes similar to those related to the IODs associated with ENSO. The correlation between the independent IOD and Indian summer monsoon activities increases dramatically after the 1980s, which is probably due to the mean state change in the tropical Indian Ocean climate system.

An extensive literature has documented the conflict between employment and household responsibilities and its impacts on the gendered patterns of daily activities in dual-earner households. However, most studies have focused exclusively on the division of household labour in nuclear households, with insufficient attention paid to the impact of alternative household strategies such as co-residence with extended family members. This article investigates the extent to which the presence of elderly parents shifts gendered activity patterns and even reduces the gender inequality in time use in urban China. By drawing on an activity diary survey conducted in Beijing in 2012, we compare and contrast the gendered patterns in time use between nuclear family households and extended family households. We find that co-residence mitigates the tension between employment and household responsibilities for women and leads to greater gender equality in the division of household labour and a reduced gender gap in the time spent on employment. However, co-residence only enables women to shift their time allocation from household responsibilities to employment rather than to pursue discretionary activities, and therefore its positive role is limited. We further discuss the policy implications given the limitations of intergenerational co-residence as an individual-based solution for childcare and other social services in transitional urban China.

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