Landscape fragmentation threatens habitats, biodiversity and other ecosystem services. In tackling this threat, the dynamic processes of social-ecological systems should be recognised and understood. Although network analysis based on graph theory has been recognised as an efficient way of spatially understanding landscape or habitat connectivity, only few studies have offered specific approaches or suggestions for integrating detailed social-ecological values into geographical distributions. As a contribution to bridging this gap, this paper introduces a social-ecological network model for the issue of landscape or habitat fragmentation applied to the case of Stockholm, Sweden. Graph theory was used in combination with sociotope and biotope maps for simple visualisation of network situations in two-dimensional maps. The European crested tit (Lophophanes cristatus), European common toad (Bufo bufo) and human beings were selected as indicator species, based on a landscape ecology analysis in Stockholm Municipality in 2009. Slope, land use and human disturbance maps were assessed in order to decide cost values of travelling from node to node. Lease-cost-path accumulation was used to create ideal reference maps of green networks. Three separate maps were then developed for suggesting efficient routes for three indicators in city scale that mainly connect from the Royal National City Park to the other parts of the city. The model in Hjorthagen neighbourhood to highlight two practical paths that link this fragmented community to its neighbouring park areas. Findings make it possible to address two scales of network improvement strategies, namely first for the city-scale green network that connects geographical habitats (nodes) and the regional green wedges of the city, and the second that of neighbourhood links between habitats in detailed layers of green networks. Strategic improvement potentials are presented based on ideal reference maps of green networks correspondingly.

During the 20th century, a variety of concepts were developed aimed to provide frameworks for green space planning and design in urban areas. Both China and Scandinavia represent important experience in green space planning and management. However, none of the current concepts is generated based on the explicit combination of both a Western and Eastern context. In this paper, based on the analysis of various green space planning concepts and their development, a novel “hybrid’ approach is introduced. This “Green Network’ concept focuses on green and blue connectivity in urban areas and comprises the network of green spaces and the surface water system within and around settlements. The concept offers a platform for integrating best practices from Scandinavian and Chinese open space planning and can provide a guiding tool for sustainable urban development.

Lawn, the most common human-created and culture-shaped habitat in urban green areas, has recently been questioned because of the negative environmental impacts from intensive lawn management. China, a late adopter of lawns, has a great potential to implement sustainable lawns. Based on a literature review, field observations and interviews with local politicians, lawn managers, landscape architects and local residents in Chinese cities, this study seeks inspiration for sustainable lawns within classical Chinese gardening and European examples and identifies the drivers of lawn development in China. The definition of lawns has varied over time, evolving with the changes in the relationship between human and environment. Chinese people's paradigm on lawns is influenced by the trend of Westernisation and globalisation after 1840s. We conclude that shifting the existing paradigm to environmentally friendly lawn aesthetics and bridging the knowledge gap between researchers and practitioners are challenges in achieving sustainable lawns in China. This paper creates a better understanding of the lawn phenomenon in China and is one step ahead in shifting people's paradigm of lawns in countries that are later adopters of lawns.

Green-blue space loss and fragmentation are particularly acute in Chinese cities due to rapid urbanization, large ring-road system and the following city compartments. Therefore, connecting urban green-blue spaces has been recently advocated by central government. This paper revised and applied the recently developed urban green network approach to the case of Xi'an city, China, a city which has been rarely studied before from this perspective. The focus was on connecting fragments of urban green-blue spaces to compact green-blue networks, integrating both social and ecological functions into a fully functioning entity. Landscape metric analysis was added to identify that the main city outside the city core should be a planning priority zone. The Eurasian tree sparrow (Passer montanus), Asiatic toad (Bufo gargarizans) and humans at leisure were selected as three focal species to meet the emerged socio-ecological benefits. Sociotope and biotope maps were drawn up to identify patches with high human recreation and wildlife shelter values and providing crucial network structures. Leastcost-path model was used for identifying potential linkages between patches. This model was based on network structures and cost surface, which measures the theoretical energy cost of travelling between landscape elements. By integrating the potential paths for the selected organisms with density analysis, the updated framework generated three improvement maps for species indicators, and 10 network corridors for establishing green-blue networks at city scale. At neighbourhood scale, one site with habitat and linkage examples illustrated specific measures that could be taken in local practice.

Green structure has undergone many changes during the process of urban development. This paper compares Stockholm, Sweden, and Xi'an, China, in order to illustrate these changes over time and how they reflect the deeper human-nature relationship. This type of analysis can uncover the cultural identity of different cities and clarify urban forms that are common to other geographical locations. We found well-preserved green structure of different periods in the two cities, indicating similar structural development traditions but using different components. Analysis and comparison of three stages of formation revealed that conflicts between the built environment and green structure are an illustration of human-nature interactions, which change with cultural and societal changes in different areas. We argue that rethinking green structure and invoking deep respect for nature is a starting point for resolving such conflicts and the wider environmental crisis.