The Arabidopsis thaliana secretome was analyzed by the proteomic approach, which led to the identification of secreted proteins implicated in many aspects of cell biology. We then investigated the change in the Arabidopsis secretome in response to salicylic acid and identified several proteins involved in pathogen response. One of these, a secreted lipase with a GDSL-like motif designated GDSL LIPASE1 (GLIP1), was further characterized for its function in disease resistance. glip1 plants were markedly more susceptible to infection by the necrotrophic fungus Alternaria brassicicola compared with the parental wild-type plants. The recombinant GLIP1 protein possessed lipase and antimicrobial activities that directly disrupt fungal spore integrity. Furthermore, GLIP1 appeared to trigger systemic resistance signaling in plants when challenged with A. brassicicola, because pretreatment of the glip1 mutant with recombinant GLIP1 protein inhibited A. brassicicola-induced cell death in both peripheral and distal leaves. Moreover, glip1 showed altered expression of defense-and ethylene-related genes. GLIP1 transcription was increased by ethephon, the ethylene releaser, but not by salicylic acid or jasmonic acid. These results suggest that GLIP1, in association with ethylene signaling, may be a critical component in plant resistance to A. brassicicola.

A multistep two-component signaling system is established as a key element of cytokinin signaling in Arabidopsis. Here, we provide evidence for a function of the two-component signaling system in cold stress response in Arabidopsis. Cold significantly induced the expression of a subset of A-type ARR genes and of GUS in Pro ARR7 :GUS transgenic Arabidopsis. AHK2 and AHK3 were found to be primarily involved in mediating cold to express A-type ARRs despite cytokinin deficiency. Cold neither significantly induced AHK2 and AHK3 expression nor altered the cytokinin contents of wild type within the 4 h during which the A-type ARR genes exhibited peak expression in response to cold, indicating that cold might induce ARR expression via the AHK2 and AHK3 proteins without alterations in cytokinin levels. The ahk2 ahk3 and ahk3 ahk4 mutants exhibited enhanced freezing tolerance compared with wild type. These ahk double mutants acclimated as efficiently to cold as did wild type. The overexpression of the cold-inducible ARR7 in Arabidopsis resulted in a hypersensitivity response to freezing temperatures under coldacclimated conditions. The expression of C-repeat/dehydration-responsive element target genes was not affected by ARR7 overexpression as well as in ahk double mutants. By contrast, the arr7 mutants showed increased freezing tolerance. The ahk2 ahk3 and arr7 mutants showed hypersensitive response to abscisic acid (ABA) for germination, whereas ARR7 overexpression lines exhibited insensitive response to ABA. These results suggest that AHK2 and AHK3 and the cold-inducible A-type ARRs play a negative regulatory role in cold stress signaling via inhibition of ABA response, occurring independently of the cold acclimation pathway.Cytokinins are plant hormones that regulate a variety of developmental and physiological processes, including cell division, cell proliferation, root and leaf differentiation, chloroplast biogenesis, and the inhibition of leaf senescence (1). Arabidopsis cytokinin signaling utilizes a multistep phospho-relay composed of a sensor kinase, a histidine phosphotransfer protein, and a response regulator similar to the TCS 2 of bacterial and yeast cells (2). A hybrid-type histidine kinase referred to as CYTOKININ INDEPENDENT1 (CKI1) is essential for megagametogenesis (3). CYTOKININ RESPONSE1 (CRE1)/ WOODEN LEG1 (WOL1)/ARABIDOPSIS HISTIDINE KINASE4 (AHK4) were shown to bind directly to a variety of natural and synthetic cytokinins in vitro with high specificity as well as in a yeast system and thus to be a primary receptor for cytokinins (4 -8). The experiments conducted using a heterologous phospho-relay system demonstrated that AHK2 and AHK3 are also cytokinin receptors. The primary functions of these Arabidopsis histidine kinase (AHK) genes involve the triggering of cell division and the maintenance of the meristematic competence of cells to prevent subsequent differentiation (9, 10). Partially redundant functions of cytokinin receptors have also been revealed in shoot growth, root development, leaf sen...

Adenosine signaling has been implicated in the pathophysiology of many psychiatric disorders including alcoholism. Striatal adenosine A2A receptors (A2AR) play an essential role in both ethanol drinking and the shift from goal-directed action to habitual behavior. However, direct evidence for a role of striatal A2AR signaling in ethanol drinking and habit development has not been established. Here, we identified that decreased A2AR-mediated CREB activity in the dorsomedial striatum (DMS) enhanced initial behavioral acquisition of goal-directed behaviors and the vulnerability to progress to excessive ethanol drinking during operant conditioning in mice lacking ethanol-sensitive adenosine transporter ENT1 (ENT1−/−). Utilizing mice expressing β-galactosidase (lacZ) under the control of seven-repeated CRE sites in both genotypes (CRE-lacZ/ENT1+/+ mice and CRE-lacZ/ENT1−/− mice) as well as dnCREB (dominant negative form of CREB), we found that reduced CREB activity in the DMS is causally associated with decreased A2AR signaling and increased goal-directed ethanol drinking. Finally, we demonstrated that A2AR antagonist (ZM241385) dampened PKA-activity mediated signaling in the DMS and promoted excessive ethanol drinking in ENT1+/+ mice, but not in ENT1−/− mice. Taken together, our studies indicate that A2AR-mediated CREB signaling in the DMS is a key determinant to enhance the development of goal-directed ethanol drinking in mice.

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Adenosine signaling is implicated in several neuropsychiatric disorders, including alcoholism. Among its diverse functions in the brain, adenosine regulates glutamate release and has an essential role in ethanol sensitivity and preference. However, the molecular mechanisms underlying adenosine-mediated glutamate signaling in neuroglial interaction remain elusive. We have previously shown that mice lacking the ethanol-sensitive adenosine transporter, type 1 equilibrative nucleoside transporter (ENT1), drink more ethanol compared with wild-type mice and have elevated striatal glutamate levels. In addition, ENT1 inhibition or knockdown reduces glutamate transporter expression in cultured astrocytes. Here, we examined how adenosine signaling in astrocytes contributes to ethanol drinking. Inhibition or deletion of ENT1 reduced the expression of type 2 excitatory amino-acid transporter (EAAT2) and the astrocyte-specific water channel, aquaporin 4 (AQP4). EAAT2 and AQP4 colocalization was also reduced in the striatum of ENT1 null mice. Ceftriaxone, an antibiotic compound known to increase EAAT2 expression and function, elevated not only EAAT2 but also AQP4 expression in the striatum. Furthermore, ceftriaxone reduced ethanol drinking, suggesting that ENT1-mediated downregulation of EAAT2 and AQP4 expression contributes to excessive ethanol consumption in our mouse model. Overall, our findings indicate that adenosine signaling regulates EAAT2 and astrocytic AQP4 expressions, which control ethanol drinking in mice.