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With the rapid proliferation of cyber-physical systems (CPSs) in various sectors, including critical infrastructure, transportation, healthcare, and the energy industry, there is a pressing need for robust cybersecurity mechanisms to protect these systems from cyberattacks. A cyber-physical system is a combination of physical and cyber components, and a security breach in either component can lead to catastrophic consequences. Cyberattack detection and mitigation methods in CPSs involve the use of various techniques such as intrusion detection systems (IDSs), firewalls, access control mechanisms, and encryption. Overall, effective cyberattack detection and mitigation methods in CPSs require a comprehensive security strategy that considers the unique characteristics of a CPS, such as the interconnectedness of physical and cyber components, the need for real-time response, and the potential consequences of a security breach. By implementing these methods, CPSs can be better protected against cyberattacks, thus ensuring the safety and reliability of critical infrastructure and other vital systems. This paper reviews the various kinds of cyber-attacks that have been launched or implemented in CPSs. It reports on the state-of-the-art detection and mitigation methods that have been used or proposed to secure the safe operation of various CPSs. A summary of the requirements that CPSs need to satisfy their operation is highlighted, and an analysis of the benefits and drawbacks of model-based and data-driven techniques is carried out. The roles of machine learning in cyber assault are reviewed. In order to direct future study and motivate additional investigation of this increasingly important subject, some challenges that have been unaddressed, such as the prerequisites for CPSs, an in-depth analysis of CPS characteristics and requirements, and the creation of a holistic review of the different kinds of attacks on different CPSs, together with detection and mitigation algorithms, are discussed in this review.

The majority of South Africa’s electricity is generated from fossil-fuel plants that use mainly coal. In these power plants, the combustion of these fossil fuels liberates greenhouse gasses into the atmosphere that contribute to climate change. This problem coupled with the rapid depletion of fossil fuels has necessitated the need to explore the alternative form of energy such as renewable energy. Tidal energy is a form of ocean energy that can be considered as an alternative energy resource or renewable energy source. This form of energy has not been explored in South Africa, the only country in the world that is bounded by two oceans; the Indian and the Atlantic. Tidal energy can be harnessed from the movements of tides to generate electrical power. This study considered the possibility of harnessing tidal energy as the alternative energy source for power generation which can be used to mitigate the challenges associated with the energy crisis currently being experienced in the country. For this study, an extensive literature review was carried out to understand the tidal phenomenon, the concept of energy conversion from tides, the different techniques or technologies that can be used to generated power from tides. There are two main technologies used for converting tidal energy to electrical energy and these are the tidal barrage and the tidal streams. Based on the inferences drawn from the literature reviews concerning the tides experienced around the South Africa coastal region, it was identified that the tidal stream technique is applicable. Harmonic analysis of the tidal resource for four identified sites was conducted, from these analyses, Esikhawini was selected as an optimum site. Tidal streams extract the kinetic energy of tides and the mode of operation of tidal stream plants is determined by the type of tidal turbine employed. Several turbine designs were reviewed, a helical cross-flow turbine was selected due to its self-starting capability and its ability to operate in reverse stream flows. For this helical turbine, an analytical model using the blade element momentum theory (BEMT) was developed and was implemented on MATLAB environment. For the experimentation, a prototype was developed and tested in a laboratory concrete flume in the department of Civil Engineering at the University of KwaZulu-Natal. Based on the experimental results, an analysis of the unit turbine was done which was used to propose a conceptualized tidal power plant. Hence, the proposed tidal power plant was used to justify the reason for embarking on this study which is to ascertain the possibility of establishing a tidal power plant in South Africa.

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