The accumulation of anthropogenic CO 2 in the ocean has altered carbonate chemistry in surface waters since preindustrial times and is expected to continue to do so in the coming centuries. Changes in carbonate chemistry can modify the rates and fates of marine primary production and calcification. These modifications can in turn lead to feedback on increasing atmospheric CO 2 . We show, using a numerical model, that in highly productive nearshore coastal marine environments, the effect of eutrophication on carbon cycling can counter the effect of ocean acidification on the carbonate chemistry of surface waters. Also, changes in river nutrient delivery due to management regulation policies can lead to stronger changes in carbonate chemistry than ocean acidification. Whether antagonistic or synergistic, the response of carbonate chemistry to changes of nutrient delivery to the coastal zone (increase or decrease, respectively) is stronger than ocean acidification.The open ocean is a major sink of anthropogenic CO 2 (Sabine et al. 2004); however, the accumulation of anthropogenic CO 2 has altered carbonate chemistry in surface waters since preindustrial times, and is expected to continue to do so in the coming centuries (Orr et al. 2005 3 ], and of the saturation state of calcite (V ca ) and aragonite (V ar ), all related to shifts in thermodynamic equilibria in response to the input of anthropogenic CO 2 from the atmosphere. Changes of the carbonate chemistry of surface waters related to ocean acidification can alter the rates and fates of primary production and calcification of numerous marine organisms and communities (Kleypas et al. 2006;Doney et al. 2009). Such changes can provide either positive or negative feedback on increasing atmospheric CO 2 by modifying the flux of CO 2 between the ocean and the atmosphere. The increase of [CO 2 ] can favor the availability of inorganic carbon for primary producers, whereas the decrease of [CO

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Many protist plankton are mixotrophs, combining phototrophy and phagotrophy. Their role in freshwater and marine ecology has emerged as a major developing feature of plankton research over recent decades. To better aid discussions, we suggest these organisms are termed “mixoplankton”, as “planktonic protist organisms that express, or have potential to express, phototrophy and phagotrophy”. The term “phytoplankton” then describes phototrophic organisms incapable of phagotrophy. “Protozooplankton” describes phagotrophic protists that do not engage in acquired phototrophy. The complexity of the changes to the conceptual base of the plankton trophic web caused by inclusion of mixoplanktonic activities are such that we suggest that the restructured description is termed the “mixoplankton paradigm”. Implications and opportunities for revision of survey and fieldwork, of laboratory experiments and of simulation modelling are considered. The main challenges are not only with taxonomic and functional identifications, and with measuring rates of potentially competing processes within single cells, but with decades of inertia built around the traditional paradigm that assumes a separation of trophic processes between different organisms. In keeping with the synergistic nature of cooperative photo- and phagotrophy in mixoplankton, a comprehensive multidisciplinary approach will be required to tackle the task ahead.

Methane is the second most important greenhouse gas contributing to climate warming. The open ocean is a minor source of methane to the atmosphere. We report intense methane emissions from the near-shore southern region of the North Sea characterized by the presence of extensive areas with gassy sediments. The average flux intensities (~130 μmol m−2 d−1) are one order of magnitude higher than values characteristic of continental shelves (~30 μmol m−2 d−1) and three orders of magnitude higher than values characteristic of the open ocean (~0.4 μmol m−2 d−1). The high methane concentrations (up to 1,128 nmol L−1) that sustain these fluxes are related to the shallow and well-mixed water column that allows an efficient transfer of methane from the seafloor to surface waters. This differs from deeper and stratified seep areas where there is a large decrease of methane between bottom and surface by microbial oxidation or physical transport. Shallow well-mixed continental shelves represent about 33% of the total continental shelf area, so that marine coastal methane emissions are probably under-estimated. Near-shore and shallow seep areas are hot spots of methane emission, and our data also suggest that emissions could increase in response to warming of surface waters.

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