SummaryBackgroundWe aimed to accurately estimate the frequency of a hexanucleotide repeat expansion in C9orf72 that has been associated with a large proportion of cases of amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS) and frontotemporal dementia (FTD).MethodsWe screened 4448 patients diagnosed with ALS (El Escorial criteria) and 1425 patients with FTD (Lund-Manchester criteria) from 17 regions worldwide for the GGGGCC hexanucleotide expansion using a repeat-primed PCR assay. We assessed familial disease status on the basis of self-reported family history of similar neurodegenerative diseases at the time of sample collection. We compared haplotype data for 262 patients carrying the expansion with the known Finnish founder risk haplotype across the chromosomal locus. We calculated age-related penetrance using the Kaplan-Meier method with data for 603 individuals with the expansion.FindingsIn patients with sporadic ALS, we identified the repeat expansion in 236 (7·0%) of 3377 white individuals from the USA, Europe, and Australia, two (4·1%) of 49 black individuals from the USA, and six (8·3%) of 72 Hispanic individuals from the USA. The mutation was present in 217 (39·3%) of 552 white individuals with familial ALS from Europe and the USA. 59 (6·0%) of 981 white Europeans with sporadic FTD had the mutation, as did 99 (24·8%) of 400 white Europeans with familial FTD. Data for other ethnic groups were sparse, but we identified one Asian patient with familial ALS (from 20 assessed) and two with familial FTD (from three assessed) who carried the mutation. The mutation was not carried by the three Native Americans or 360 patients from Asia or the Pacific Islands with sporadic ALS who were tested, or by 41 Asian patients with sporadic FTD. All patients with the repeat expansion had (partly or fully) the founder haplotype, suggesting a one-off expansion occurring about 1500 years ago. The pathogenic expansion was non-penetrant in individuals younger than 35 years, 50% penetrant by 58 years, and almost fully penetrant by 80 years.InterpretationA common Mendelian genetic lesion in C9orf72 is implicated in many cases of sporadic and familial ALS and FTD. Testing for this pathogenic expansion should be considered in the management and genetic counselling of patients with these fatal neurodegenerative diseases.FundingFull funding sources listed at end of paper (see Acknowledgments).

There is increasing evidence that frontotemporal dementia and amyotrophic lateral sclerosis are part of a disease continuum. Recently, a hexanucleotide repeat expansion in C9orf72 was identified as a major cause of both sporadic and familial frontotemporal dementia and amyotrophic lateral sclerosis. The aim of this study was to investigate clinical and neuropathological characteristics of hexanucleotide repeat expansions in C9orf72 in a large cohort of Dutch patients with frontotemporal dementia. Repeat expansions were successfully determined in a cohort of 353 patients with sporadic or familial frontotemporal dementia with or without amyotrophic lateral sclerosis, and 522 neurologically normal controls. Immunohistochemistry was performed in a series of 10 brains from patients carrying expanded repeats using a panel of antibodies. In addition, the presence of RNA containing GGGGCC repeats in paraffin-embedded sections of post-mortem brain tissue was investigated using fluorescence in situ hybridization with a locked nucleic acid probe targeting the GGGGCC repeat. Hexanucleotide repeat expansions in C9orf72 were found in 37 patients with familial (28.7%) and five with sporadic frontotemporal dementia (2.2%). The mean age at onset was 56.9 ± 8.3 years (range 39-76), and disease duration 7.6 ± 4.6 years (range 1-22). The clinical phenotype of these patients varied between the behavioural variant of frontotemporal dementia (n = 34) and primary progressive aphasia (n = 8), with concomitant amyotrophic lateral sclerosis in seven patients. Predominant temporal atrophy on neuroimaging was present in 13 of 32 patients. Pathological examination of the 10 brains from patients carrying expanded repeats revealed frontotemporal lobar degeneration with neuronal transactive response DNA binding protein-positive inclusions of variable type, size and morphology in all brains. Fluorescence in situ hybridization analysis of brain material from patients with the repeat expansion, a microtubule-associated protein tau or a progranulin mutation, and controls did not show RNA-positive inclusions specific for brains with the GGGGCC repeat expansion. The hexanucleotide repeat expansion in C9orf72 is an important cause of frontotemporal dementia with and without amyotrophic lateral sclerosis, and is sometimes associated with primary progressive aphasia. Neuropathological hallmarks include neuronal and glial inclusions, and dystrophic neurites containing transactive response DNA binding protein. Future studies are needed to explain the wide variation in clinical presentation.

Congenital anomalies of the kidney and urinary tract (CAKUT) refer to a spectrum of structural renal malformations and are the leading cause of end-stage renal disease in children. The genetic diagnosis of CAKUT has proven to be challenging due to genetic and phenotypic heterogeneity and incomplete genetic penetrance. Monogenic causes of CAKUT have been identified using different approaches, including single gene screening, and gene panel and whole exome sequencing. The majority of the identified mutations, however, lack substantial evidence to support a pathogenic role in CAKUT. Copy number variants or single nucleotide variants that are associated with CAKUT have also been identified. Numerous studies support the influence of epigenetic and environmental factors on kidney development and the natural history of CAKUT, suggesting that the pathogenesis of this syndrome is multifactorial. In this Review we describe the current knowledge regarding the genetic susceptibility underlying CAKUT and the approaches used to investigate the genetic basis of CAKUT. We outline the associated environmental risk factors and epigenetic influences on CAKUT and discuss the challenges and strategies used to fully address the involvement and interplay of these factors in the pathogenesis of the disease.

Genome-wide association studies (GWASs) have been successful at identifying single-nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) highly associated with common traits; however, a great deal of the heritable variation associated with common traits remains unaccounted for within the genome. Genome-wide complex trait analysis (GCTA) is a statistical method that applies a linear mixed model to estimate phenotypic variance of complex traits explained by genome-wide SNPs, including those not associated with the trait in a GWAS. We applied GCTA to 8 cohorts containing 7096 case and 19 455 control individuals of European ancestry in order to examine the missing heritability present in Parkinson's disease (PD). We meta-analyzed our initial results to produce robust heritability estimates for PD types across cohorts. Our results identify 27% (95% CI 17-38, P = 8.08E - 08) phenotypic variance associated with all types of PD, 15% (95% CI -0.2 to 33, P = 0.09) phenotypic variance associated with early-onset PD and 31% (95% CI 17-44, P = 1.34E - 05) phenotypic variance associated with late-onset PD. This is a substantial increase from the genetic variance identified by top GWAS hits alone (between 3 and 5%) and indicates there are substantially more risk loci to be identified. Our results suggest that although GWASs are a useful tool in identifying the most common variants associated with complex disease, a great deal of common variants of small effect remain to be discovered.