IntroductionLimited access to essential medicines (EMs) for treating chronic diseases is a major challenge in low-income and middle-income countries. Although India is the largest manufacturer of generic medicines, there is a paucity of information on availability, price and affordability of anti-neoplastic EMs, which this study evaluates.MethodsUsing a modified WHO/Health Action International methodology, data were collected on availability and price of 33 strength-specific anti-neoplastic EMs and 4 non-cancer EMs. Seven ‘survey anchor’ hospitals (4 public and 3 private) and 32 private-sector retail pharmacies were surveyed. Median price ratios (MPRs) were calculated by comparing consumer prices with international reference prices (IRPs).ResultsOn average, across survey anchor areas (hospital and private-sector retail pharmacies combined), the mean availability of anti-neoplastic EMs and non-cancer medicines was 70% and 100%, respectively. Mean availability of anti-neoplastic EMs was 38% in private-sector retail pharmacies, 43% in public hospital pharmacies and 71% in private hospital pharmacies. Median MPR of lowest-priced generic versions was 0.71 in retail pharmacies. The estimated cost of chemotherapy medicines needed for treating a 30 kg child with standard-risk leukaemia was INR 27 850 (US$442) and INR 17 500 (US$278) for Hodgkin’s lymphoma, requiring 88 and 55 days’ wages, respectively, for the lowest paid government worker.ConclusionMost anti-neoplastic EMs are found in survey anchor areas, however, mean availability was less than non-cancer medicines; not meeting the WHO target of 80%. Medicine prices were relatively low in New Delhi compared with IRPs. However, the cost of chemotherapy medicines seems unaffordable in the local context.

There is a need to re-emphasize sudden infant death syndrome guidelines for families when they present with an infant with plagiocephaly. Stronger messaging regarding the lack of safety of current pillows marketed to prevent flat head may be useful to decrease their use. Increasing education for all health professionals including general practitioners, allied health and complementary health providers and standardizing assessment and referral criteria may allow the majority of diagnosis and treatment of positional plagiocephaly to occur at points of first contact (e.g. general practitioners, community nurse) and may prevent further burden on the health care system.

While food insecurity is a well-known cause of under-nutrition and stunting, in recent decades it has also been linked with obesity. Understanding and thus minimising the risk factors for obesity in low- and middle-income country contexts, which often lack the health system capacity to treat the consequent obesity-related illnesses, is crucial. This study adopted realist review methodology because it enabled us to analyse and organise the evidence from low- and middle-income countries into a coherent scheme. By comparing this evidence to existing theory on food security and nutrition, we aimed to provide a richer understanding of the nuances and the socio-demographic nature of the food insecurity-obesity relationship. The review generated 13 peer-reviewed articles which studied the relationship between food insecurity and overweight/obesity in low- and middle-income countries. Affordability of high-energy, processed foods was identified as a main mechanism, which determined whether or not food insecurity leads to obesity in low- and middle-income countries. Other mechanisms identified were: quantity and diversity of food consumed; spatial-temporal access to nutritious food; inter-personal food choice and distribution; and non-dietary behaviours. Despite the limited empirical evidence available, our review presents meaningful and policy-relevant insights into the food insecurity-obesity relationship in from low- and middle-income countries. Interventions to address the food insecurity-obesity link need to address diet quality, and demand a broad understanding across a variety of experiences.

BackgroundCure rates for children with cancer in India lag behind that of high-income countries. Various disease, treatment and socio-economic related factors contribute to this gap including barriers in timely access of diagnostic and therapeutic care. This study investigated barriers to accessing care from symptom onset to beginning of treatment, from perspectives of caregivers of children with cancer in India.MethodsSemi-structured in-depth interviews were conducted with caregivers of children (< 18 years) diagnosed with cancer in seven tertiary care hospitals across New Delhi and Hyderabad. Purposive sampling to saturation was used to ensure adequate representation of the child’s gender, age, cancer type, geographical location and socioeconomic status. Interviews were audio recorded after obtaining informed consent. Thematic content analysis was conducted and organised using NVivo 11.ResultsThirty-nine caregivers were interviewed, where three key themes emerged from the narratives: time intervals to definitive diagnosis and treatment, the importance of social supportive care and the overall accumulative impacts of the journey. There were two phases encapsulating the experiences of the family: referral pathways taken to reach the hospital and after reaching the hospital. Most caregivers, especially those from distant geographical areas had variable and inconsistent referral pathways partly due to poor availability of specialist doctors and diagnostic facilities outside major cities, influence from family or friends, and long travel times. Upon reaching the hospital, families mostly from public hospitals faced challenges navigating the hospital facilities, finding accommodation, and comprehending the diagnosis and treatment pathway. Throughout both phases, financial constraint was a recurring issue amongst low-income families. The caregiver’s knowledge and awareness of the disease and health system, religious and social factors were also common barriers.ConclusionThis qualitative study highlights and explores some of the barriers to childhood cancer care in India. Our findings show that referral pathways are intrinsically linked to the treatment experience and there should be better recognition of the financial and emotional challenges faced by the family that occur prior to definitive diagnosis and treatment. This information would help inform various stakeholders and contribute to improved interventions addressing these barriers.