Despite the growing popularity of upward feedback programs, there has been very little research on the effects of upward feedback on changes in managerial performance over time. We examined the effects of implementing an upward feedback program in which subordinates' ratings were collected for 238 first‐through fifth‐level managers in a large corporation at two points in time about 6 months apart. Research questions drawn from goal‐setting, control, and social cognition theories guided our investigation of the effects of (a) receiving feedback, (b) completing self‐ratings, (c) managers' initial level of performance, and (d) subordinate's familiarity with the manager on changes over time in the level of ratings and reported opportunity to observe managerial behaviors. Ratings were provided on a 33‐item behavioral observation scale that focused on areas such as the manager's commitment to quality, communications, support of subordinates (encouraging participation, coaching), and fairness. Based on subordinates' ratings, managers whose initial level of performance was moderate or low improved over the 6‐month period, and this improvement could not be attributed solely to regression to the mean. Also, both managers and their subordinates became more likely over time to indicate that the managers had an opportunity to demonstrate behaviors measured by the upward feedback instrument.

This study followed 92 managers during four administrations of an upward feedback program over 2.5 years. Managers' whose initial level of performance (defined as the average rating from subordinates) was low improved between Administrations 1 and 2, and sustained this improvement 2 years later. Most of the performance improvement occurred between the first and second administrations of the program. The observed performance improvement could not be attributed solely to regression to the mean and was unrelated to the number of times, or when, the managers received feedback. Our results suggest that the continued administration of an upward feedback program can result in sustained change over a fairly long period of time and that actually receiving feedback may be less important than the exposure to the valued behaviors. We use control theory and goal setting theory as frameworks for explaining the results and suggesting directions for future research.Upward feedback (that is, subordinates rating the performance of their immediate supervisor) is growing in importance as a tool for individual and organizational development (Although research on psychometric characteristics of subordinate ratings and attitudinal reactions to upward feedback is helpful, the critical question of whether managers change their behavior after receiving feedback has received relatively little attention until recently. Bernardin, Hagan and Kane (1995) found improvement in subordinate and peer ratings but no changes in supervisor or customer ratings after managers received 360 feedback. Hazucha, Gentile, and Schneider (1993) reported Correspondence and requests for reprints should be addressed to Richard R. Reilly, Ph.D., 16 Fairbanks Lane, Basking Ridge, NJ 07920 COPYRIGHT 0 1996 PERSONNEL PSYCHOLOGY. INC. 599

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In this Caucasian sample, the 5-HTTLPR strongly influences alcohol consumption in late pubescence.