Bidentate chelators 1-(1-benzyl-1,2,3-triazol-4-yl)isoquinoline and 3-(1-benzyl-1,2,3-triazol-4yl)isoquinoline were prepared from benzyl bromide and trimethylsilylethynylisoquinoline precursors using a tandem deprotection/substitution/CuAAC synthetic approach. Each chelator is capable of forming a stable 3:1 Ru(II) coordination compound, which forms as a geometric isomer mixture. These Ru(II) complexes possess unique MLCT absorbance signatures at 450/472 nm (1isomer) and 367 nm (3-isomer) relative to their constituent chelating units. Minimum inhibitory concentration values as low as 0.4 μM are observed for Ru(II) complexes against representative Gram-positive bacteria Bacillus subtilis and Staphylococcus epidermidis. Comparing the MIC values of these isoquinoline compounds with analogous 2-(1-benzyl-1,2,3-triazol-4-yl)pyridine compounds shows a 2.5-to 40-fold improvement in potency. This study establishes that increased hydrophobicity introduced at the central chelating units of Ru(II) coordination compounds can be a useful means by which to optimize antimicrobial activity that is complimentary to the variation of peripheral substituent identity at the chelator's N1 triazole position.

Quinine is a promising natural product building block for polymerbased nucleic acid delivery vehicles as its structure enables DNA binding through both intercalation and electrostatic interactions. However, studies exploring the potential of quinine-based polymers for nucleic acid delivery applications (transfection) are limited. In this work, we used a hydroquinine-functionalized monomer, HQ, with 2-hydroxyethyl acrylate to create a family of seven polymers (HQ-X, X = mole percentage of HQ), with mole percentages of HQ ranging from 12 to 100%. We developed a flow cytometer-based assay for studying the polymer−pDNA complexes (polyplex particles) directly and demonstrate that polymer composition and monomer structure influence polyplex characteristics such as the pDNA loading and the extent of adsorption of serum proteins on polyplex particles. Biological delivery experiments revealed that maximum transgene expression, outperforming commercial controls, was achieved with HQ-25 and HQ-35 as these two variants sustained gene expression over 96 h. HQ-44, HQ-60, and HQ-100 were not successful in inducing transgene expression, despite being able to deliver pDNA into the cells, highlighting that the release of pDNA is likely the bottleneck in transfection for polymers with higher HQ content. Using confocal imaging, we quantified the extent of colocalization between pDNA and lysosomes, proving the remarkable endosomal escape capabilities of the HQ-X polymers. Overall, this study demonstrates the advantages of HQ-X polymers as well as provides guiding principles for improving the monomer structure and polymer composition, supporting the development of the next generation of polymer-based nucleic acid delivery vehicles harnessing the power of natural products.

Nucleic acid-based medicines and vaccines are becoming an important part of our therapeutic toolbox. One key genetic medicine is antisense oligonucleotides (ASOs), which are short single-stranded nucleic acids that downregulate protein production by binding to mRNA. However, ASOs cannot enter the cell without a delivery vehicle. Diblock polymers containing cationic and hydrophobic blocks self-assemble into micelles that have shown improved delivery compared to linear nonmicelle variants. Yet synthetic and characterization bottlenecks have hindered rapid screening and optimization. In this study, we aim to develop a method to increase throughput and discovery of new micelle systems by mixing diblock polymers together to rapidly form new micelle formulations. We synthesized diblocks containing an n-butyl acrylate block chain extended with cationic moieties amino ethyl acrylamide (A), dimethyl amino ethyl acrylamide (D), or morpholino ethyl acrylamide (M). These diblocks were then self-assembled into homomicelles (A100, D100, and M100)), mixed micelles comprising 2 homomicelles (MixR%+R′%), and blended diblock micelles comprising 2 diblocks blended into one micelle (BldR%R′%) and tested for ASO delivery. Interestingly, we observed that mixing or blending M with A (BldA50M50 and MixA50+M50) did not improve transfection efficiency compared to A100; however, when M was mixed with D, there was a significant increase in transfection efficacy for the mixed micelle MixD50+M50 compared to D100. We further examined mixed and blended D systems at different ratios. We observed a large increase in transfection and minimal change in toxicity when M was mixed with D at a low percentage of D incorporation in mixed diblock micelles (i.e., BldD20M80) compared to D100 and MixD20+M80. To understand the cellular mechanisms that may result in these differences, we added proton pump inhibitor Bafilomycin-A1 (Baf-A1) to the transfection experiments. Formulations that contain D decreased in performance in the presence of Baf-A1, indicating that micelles with D rely on the proton sponge effect for endosomal escape more than micelles with A. This result supports our conclusion that M is able to modulate transfection of D, but not with A. This research shows that polymer blending in a manner similar to that of lipids can significantly boost transfection efficiency and is a facile way to increase throughput of testing, optimization, and successful formulation identification for polymeric nucleic acid delivery systems.