Inferences are crucial to successful discourse comprehension. We assessed the contributions of vocabulary and working memory to inference making in children aged 5 and 6years (n=44), 7 and 8years (n=43), and 9 and 10years (n=43). Children listened to short narratives and answered questions to assess local and global coherence inferences after each one. Analysis of variance (ANOVA) confirmed developmental improvements on both types of inference. Although standardized measures of both vocabulary and working memory were correlated with inference making, multiple regression analyses determined that vocabulary was the key predictor. For local coherence inferences, only vocabulary predicted unique variance for the 6- and 8-year-olds; in contrast, none of the variables predicted performance for the 10-year-olds. For global coherence inferences, vocabulary was the only unique predictor for each age group. Mediation analysis confirmed that although working memory was associated with the ability to generate local and global coherence inferences in 6- to 10-year-olds, the effect was mediated by vocabulary. We conclude that vocabulary knowledge supports inference making in two ways: through knowledge of word meanings required to generate inferences and through its contribution to memory processes.

Background Morphological awareness plays a crucial role in supporting higher‐level text processing. We examined its contribution to reading comprehension in children of different ages and ability levels in order to determine when and for whom morphological awareness is of particular importance. Methods Three groups of children (aged 6–8 years, N = 128; 9–11 years, N = 126; and 12–13 years N = 147) completed judgement and production tasks to measure awareness of compounding, inflections and derivations. Nonverbal reasoning, vocabulary, phonological awareness, word reading and reading comprehension were also assessed. Results Principal component analysis yielded a single primary factor of morphological awareness for each age group. Separate hierarchical multiple regressions revealed that this morphological awareness factor accounted for significant unique variance in reading comprehension for groups of 6–8 and 12–13 years, beyond age, nonverbal reasoning, vocabulary, phonological awareness and word reading. Vocabulary also uniquely predicted reading comprehension in all three age groups. Quantile regression analyses at three points in the reading comprehension distribution (0.1, 0.5 and 0.9) indicated that morphological awareness and vocabulary predicted reading comprehension to a similar extent across the ability range. Conclusions Our results clarify the fundamental role of morphological awareness in reading comprehension across all levels of readers. In addition, vocabulary and morphological awareness each make critical contributions to comprehension ability in developing readers across the ability range.

Children with rolandic epilepsy may be at risk of poor reading comprehension. This was related to poor word reading, poor listening comprehension, or both. Reading comprehension interventions should be tailored to the profile of difficulties.

We examined sixth graders' detection of inconsistencies in narrative and expository passages, contrasting participants who were monolingual speakers (N = 85) or Spanish-English DLLs (N = 94) when recruited in prekindergarten (PK). We recorded self-paced reading times and judgments about whether the text made sense, and took an independent measure of word reading. Main findings were that inconsistency detection was better for narratives, for participants who were monolingual speakers in PK, and for those who were better word readers. When the text processing demands were increased by separating the inconsistent sentence and its premise with filler sentences there was a stronger signal for inconsistency detection during reading for better word readers. Reading patterns differed for texts for which children reported an inconsistency compared to those for which they did not, indicating a failure to adequately monitor for coherence while reading. Our performance measures indicate that narrative and expository texts make different demands on readers.

Inference making is fundamental to the construction of a coherent mental model of a text. We examined how vocabulary and verbal working memory relate to inference development concurrently and longitudinally in 4-to 9-year-olds. Four hundred and twenty prekindergartners completed oral assessments of inference making, vocabulary breadth, vocabulary depth, and verbal working memory each year until Grade 3. Concurrently, hierarchical regressions revealed that a greater proportion of total variance in inference making was explained by vocabulary and verbal working memory for younger than older children. Vocabulary breadth was a stronger predictor of inference than verbal working memory, but the opposite pattern was found for vocabulary depth and verbal working memory. The longitudinal relations between inference making, vocabulary, and verbal working memory were investigated in two separate cross-lagged models: one with vocabulary breadth and a second with vocabulary depth. Both vocabulary breadth and depth explained subsequent inference making and verbal working memory throughout the early grades. Inference making also predicted subsequent vocabulary depth. The results highlight the critical role of vocabulary knowledge in the development of inference ability both within and across time, the importance of vocabulary in supporting the development of verbal working memory, and the changing dynamics between language and memory in early development. Educational Impact and Implications StatementInference making is essential for successful listening and reading comprehension. This study examined how vocabulary knowledge (breadth: number of words known, and depth: what is known about a word's meaning) and verbal working memory were related to 4-to 9-year-olds' ability to make the inferences necessary to understand spoken narratives. Vocabulary knowledge and verbal working memory were stronger predictors of concurrent inference making ability for younger than for older children. Across time, reciprocal relations were evident: inference making predicted subsequent vocabulary depth, and both aspects of vocabulary knowledge supported later inference making and working memory. Educators should be aware of the critical roles of vocabulary and verbal working memory to young children's inference making, and how good vocabulary skills support verbal memory. Of note are the reciprocal relations that exist between vocabulary and inference; both skills should be fostered in the classroom to mutually support each other.