larynx, or hypopharynx. [2,3] Risk factors can be behavioral (i.e., tobacco and alcohol use) or infection-associated (i.e., human papillomavirus (HPV)), and these factors vary with geographic location. [4] Head and neck squamous cell carcinoma (SCC) constitutes 90% of cases of HNC and is associated with severe disease and high rates of recurrence despite advances in cancer treatment. [1] The oral cavity is innervated by cranial nerves with a high density of sensory nerves, originating mainly from the trigeminal ganglia (TG). [5] To date, histological patterns of cancer-nerve interaction, defined as perineural invasion (PNI), are identified as the presence of tumor cell clusters within the peripheral nerve sheath or infiltrating the nerves and/or tumor cells encircling one-third of the nerve circumference. [6] PNI was detected in up to 70% of oral SCC in the tongue and/ or floor of the mouth and has been demonstrated as an independent predictor of poor prognosis and an indicator of aggressive tumor behavior. [7][8][9][10] Prior research by Rahima et al. [11] and Laske et al. [12] found that PNI in early stage oral and oropharyngeal carcinomas has a highly negative association with recurrence-free survival and tumor differentiation. Systemic analysis of the neural influences within the cancer microenvironment, including identification of how PNI and other nerve-cancer interactions generally relate to poor prognosis, is crucial given that ongoing research is focusing on the neural invasion for targeted therapies of tumor regression. [13][14][15][16][17][18] Calcitonin gene-related peptide (CGRP) is the most abundant neurotransmitter in trigeminal ganglia neurons (TGN) innervating the tongue [19,20] and serves a prominent role in efferent signaling; upon activation of sensory nerve fibers, CGRP is released from peripheral nerve terminals and exerts paracrine effects on surrounding tissues [21] , including tumor cells. Two isoforms of CGRP exist; αCGRP, derived from the CALCA gene, is the principal form found in the central and peripheral nervous system, whereas βCGRP, derived from the CALCB gene, is found mainly in the enteric nervous system. [21] In a rat oral cancer model, a high percentage of αCGRPimmunoreactive nerve sprouting was found in the tumor microenvironment and orofacial sensitization was accompanied by upregulated αCGRP expression in the maxillary and

Head and neck squamous cell carcinoma (HNSCC) patients report severe function-induced pain at the site of the primary tumor. The current hypothesis is that oral cancer pain is initiated and maintained in the cancer microenvironment due to secretion of algogenic mediators from tumor cells and surrounding immune cells that sensitize the primary sensory neurons innervating the tumor. Immunogenicity, which is the ability to induce an adaptive immune response, has been widely studied using cancer cell transplantation experiments. However, oral cancer pain studies have primarily used xenograft transplant models in which human-derived tumor cells are inoculated in an athymic mouse lacking an adaptive immune response; the role of inflammation in oral cancer-induced nociception is still unknown. Using syngeneic oral cancer mouse models, we investigated the impact of tumor cell immunogenicity and growth on orofacial nociceptive behavior and oral cancer-induced sensory neuron plasticity. We found that an aggressive, weakly immunogenic mouse oral cancer cell line, MOC2, induced rapid orofacial nociceptive behavior in both male and female C57Bl/6 mice. Additionally, MOC2 tumor growth invoked a substantial injury response in the trigeminal ganglia as defined by a significant upregulation of injury response marker ATF3 in tongue-innervating trigeminal neurons. In contrast, using a highly immunogenic mouse oral cancer cell line, MOC1, we found a much slower onset of orofacial nociceptive behavior in female C57Bl/6 mice only as well as sex-specific differences in the tumor-associated immune landscape and gene regulation in tongue innervating sensory neurons. Together, these data suggest that cancer-induced nociceptive behavior and sensory neuron plasticity can greatly depend on the immunogenic phenotype of the cancer cell line and the associated immune response.

Supplemental Digital Content is Available in the Text.Oral cancer mouse models were used to demonstrate that sympathetic neurotransmission modulates oral cancer pain and tumor growth through adrenergic signaling in the tumor microenvironment.

Histone modifications coupled to transcription elongation play important roles in regulating the accuracy and efficiency of gene expression. The mono-ubiquitylation of a conserved lysine in H2B (K123 inSaccharomyces cerevisiae; K120 in humans) occurs co-transcriptionally and is required for initiating a histone modification cascade on active genes. H2BK123 ubiquitylation (H2BK123ub) requires the RNA polymerase II (RNAPII)-associated Paf1 transcription elongation complex (Paf1C). Through its Histone Modification Domain (HMD), the Rtf1 subunit of Paf1C directly interacts with the ubiquitin conjugase Rad6, leading to the stimulation of H2BK123ubin vivoandin vitro. To understand the molecular mechanisms that target Rad6 to its histone substrate, we identified the site of interaction for the HMD on Rad6. Usingin vitrocrosslinking followed by mass spectrometry, we localized the primary contact surface for the HMD to the highly conserved N-terminal helix of Rad6. Using a combination of genetic and biochemical experiments, we identified separation-of-function mutations inS. cerevisiae RAD6that greatly impair H2BK123 ubiquitylation but not other Rad6 functions. Finally, by employing RNA-sequencing as a sensitive approach for comparing mutant phenotypes, we show that mutating either side of the proposed Rad6-HMD interface yields strikingly similar transcriptome profiles that extensively overlap with those of a mutant that lacks the site of ubiquitylation in H2B. Our results fit a model in which a specific interface between a transcription elongation factor and a ubiquitin conjugase guides substrate selection toward a highly conserved chromatin target during active gene expression.Significance StatementTranscription by RNAPII is tightly coordinated with mechanisms that control chromatin structure. Disruption of this interplay leads to deleterious effects on gene expression and genome architecture. Proteins that associate with RNAPII during transcription elongation play an important role in coupling histone modifications to active transcription. Paf1C, a conserved member of the RNAPII active elongation complex, is required for the ubiquitylation of histone H2B, a modification with effects on nucleosome stability and the methylation and acetylation state of chromatin. Here, we provide new insights into how a conserved domain in Paf1C, which we previously showed to be necessary and sufficient for Paf1C-mediated stimulation of H2B ubiquitylation, interacts with the ubiquitin conjugase for H2B thereby guiding its specificity.