Gangliosides are glycosphingolipids highly abundant in the nervous system, and carry most of the sialic acid residues in the brain. Gangliosides are enriched in cell membrane microdomains ("lipid rafts") and play important roles in the modulation of membrane proteins and ion channels, in cell signaling and in the communication among cells. The importance of gangliosides in the brain is highlighted by the fact that loss of function mutations in ganglioside biosynthetic enzymes result in severe neurodegenerative disorders, often characterized by very early or childhood onset. In addition, changes in the ganglioside profile (i.e., in the relative abundance of specific gangliosides) were reported in healthy aging and in common neurological conditions, including Huntington's disease (HD), Alzheimer's disease (AD), Parkinson's disease (PD), amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS), stroke, multiple sclerosis and epilepsy. At least in HD, PD and in some forms of epilepsy, experimental evidence strongly suggests a potential role of gangliosides in disease pathogenesis and potential treatment. In this review, we will summarize ganglioside functions that are crucial to maintain brain health, we will review changes in ganglioside levels that occur in major neurological conditions and we will discuss their contribution to cellular dysfunctions and disease pathogenesis. Finally, we will review evidence of the beneficial roles exerted by gangliosides, GM1 in particular, in disease models and in clinical trials.

Dancers and teachers should realize that passive joint range of motion is unlikely to improve with age. Therefore, the major goal of a dancing program should focus on exercises that retain the natural flexibility of the dancers' joints rather than trying to improve them.

This study was designed to characterize the vertebral body (VB) shape, focusing on vertebral wedging, along the thoracic and lumbar spine, and to look for shape variations with relation to gender, age, and ethnicity. All thoracic and lumbar (T1-L5) dissected vertebrae of 240 individuals were measured and analyzed by age, gender, and ethnicity. A 3D digitizer was used to measure all VB lengths, heights, and widths, and their ratios were calculated. This study showed that the VB size was independent of age or ethnicity. VB left lateral wedging was found in most vertebrae of most individuals, yet systematically was absent in six vertebrae (T4, T8-T9, T11, L3-L4) with a greater tendency in females than males ( approximately 92% vs. 86%). The VB was anteriorly wedged from T1 through L2 (peak at T7), nonwedged at L3, and posteriorly wedged at L4-L5 (peak at L5). VB width decreased from T1 to T4 and then increased toward L4-L5, so that the spinal configuration in the coronal plane resembled two pyramids of opposite directions, sharing an apex at T4. The inferior VB width was significantly greater than the superior width of both the same vertebra and the adjacent lower vertebra, indicating a trapezoidal shape of the VB and an inverted trapezoidal shape of the intervertebral space. In conclusion, these findings indicate that the human vertebra, in its normal condition, maintains its external dimensions with age, independent of gender or ethnic origin. Clinical and surgical implications of the unique thoracolumbar architecture are discussed.