Netrins regulate axon path-finding during development, but the underlying mechanisms are not well understood. Here, we provide evidence for the involvement of the unconventional myosin X (Myo X) in netrin-1 function. We find that Myo X interacts with the netrin receptor deleted in colorectal cancer (DCC) and neogenin, a DCC-related protein. Expression of Myo X redistributes DCC to the cell periphery or to the tips of neurites, whereas its silencing prevents DCC distribution in neurites. Moreover, expression of DCC, but not neogenin, stimulates Myo X-mediated formation and elongation of filopodia, suggesting that Myo X function may be differentially regulated by DCC and neogenin. The involvement of Myo X in netrin-1 function was further supported by the effects of inhibiting Myo X function in neurons. Cortical explants derived from mouse embryos expressing a motor-less Myo X exhibit reduced neurite outgrowth in response to netrin-1 and chick commissural neurons expressing the motor-less Myo X, or in which Myo X is silenced using microRNA (miRNA), show impaired axon projection in vivo. Taken together, these results identify a novel role for Myo X in regulating netrin-1 function.

Central serotonin (5-HT) dysregulation contributes to the susceptibility for mental disorders, including depression, anxiety, and posttraumatic stress disorder, and learning and memory deficits. We report that the formation of hippocampus-dependent spatial memory is compromised, but the acquisition and retrieval of contextual fear memory are enhanced, in central 5-HT-deficient mice. Genetic deletion of serotonin in the brain was achieved by inactivating Lmx1b selectively in the raphe nuclei of the brainstem, resulting in a near-complete loss of 5-HT throughout the brain. These 5-HT-deficient mice exhibited no gross abnormality in brain structures and had normal locomotor activity. Spatial learning in the Morris water maze was unaffected, but the retrieval of spatial memory was impaired. In contrast, contextual fear learning and memory induced by foot-shock conditioning was markedly enhanced, but this enhancement could be prevented by intracerebroventricular administration of 5-HT. Foot shock impaired longterm potentiation and facilitated long-term depression in hippocampal slices in WT mice but had no effect in 5-HT-deficient mice. Furthermore, bath application of 5-HT in 5-HT-deficient mice restored foot shock-induced alterations of hippocampal synaptic plasticity. Thus, central 5-HT regulates hippocampus-dependent contextual fear memory, and 5-HT modulation of hippocampal synaptic plasticity may be the underlying mechanism. The enhanced fear memory in 5-HT-deficient mice supports the notion that 5-HT deficiency confers susceptibility to posttraumatic stress disorder in humans.hippocampus ͉ long-term depression ͉ long-term potentiation ͉ anxiety T he neurotransmitter serotonin (5-HT) exerts a wide spectrum of actions in the nervous system by modulating neural development, synaptic plasticity, pain sensation, rhythm, food intake, and a variety of behaviors (1-4). It has been proposed that perturbation of the 5-HT level in the brain contributes to depression and anxiety, and posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) (5-8), which are often accompanied by learning and memory deficits (9-11). The hippocampus is known to be critical for the formation of spatial and contextual fear memories (12-15), and the retrieval of hippocampus-dependent memories was found to be impaired in patients with depression and PTSD (16)(17)(18). Recent studies have also implicated the hippocampus as one of the primary sites for antidepressants (6,(19)(20)(21)(22)(23). Aversive stimuli such as foot shock that led to anxiety, depression, and fear memory in rodents also altered activity-dependent hippocampal synaptic plasticity (24)(25)(26)(27)(28)(29). Because the modulation of 5-HT activity altered hippocampal long-term potentiation (LTP) and long-term depression (LTD) (30-32), it is possible that perturbation of 5-HT level in the brain may affect hippocampusdependent learning and memory, and changes in hippocampal synaptic plasticity may also contribute to mental disorders, including anxiety and fear memory.Inhibitors of 5-HT biosynthesis that...

The transcription factor Lmx1b is essential for the differentiation and survival of central serotonergic (5-HTergic) neurons during embryonic development. However, the role of Lmx1b in adult 5-HTergic neurons is unknown. We used an inducible Cre-LoxP system to selectively inactivate Lmx1b expression in the raphe nuclei of adult mice. Pet1-CreERT2 mice were generated and crossed with Lmx1bflox/flox mice to obtain Pet1-CreERT2; Lmx1bflox/flox mice (which termed as Lmx1b iCKO). After administration of tamoxifen, the level of 5-HT in the brain of Lmx1b iCKO mice was reduced to 60% of that in control mice, and the expression of tryptophan hydroxylase 2 (Tph2), serotonin transporter (Sert) and vesicular monoamine transporter 2 (Vmat2) was greatly down-regulated. On the other hand, the expression of dopamine and norepinephrine as well as aromatic L-amino acid decarboxylase (Aadc) and Pet1 was unchanged. Our results reveal that Lmx1b is required for the biosynthesis of 5-HT in adult mouse brain, and it may be involved in maintaining normal functions of central 5-HTergic neurons by regulating the expression of Tph2, Sert and Vmat2.

Highlights d RNF220 is specifically expressed in the developing ventral neural tube d RNF220 knockout leads to expansion of the intermediate and ventral-most neurons d RNF220 regulates Shh signaling through non-proteolytic ubiquitination of Glis d K63-linked ubiquitination promotes Gli nuclear export and shapes the Gli gradient