Stomata are specialized epidermal structures that regulate gas (CO 2 and O 2 ) and water vapor exchange between plants and their environment. In Arabidopsis thaliana, stomatal development is preceded by asymmetric cell divisions, and stomatal distribution follows the one-cell spacing rule, reflecting the coordination of cell fate specification. Stomatal development and patterning are regulated by both genetic and environmental signals. Here, we report that Arabidopsis MITOGEN-ACTIVATED PROTEIN KINASE3 (MPK3) and MPK6, two environmentally responsive mitogen-activated protein kinases (MAPKs), and their upstream MAPK kinases, MKK4 and MKK5, are key regulators of stomatal development and patterning. Loss of function of MKK4/MKK5 or MPK3/MPK6 disrupts the coordinated cell fate specification of stomata versus pavement cells, resulting in the formation of clustered stomata. Conversely, activation of MKK4/MKK5-MPK3/MPK6 causes the suppression of asymmetric cell divisions and stomatal cell fate specification, resulting in a lack of stomatal differentiation. We further establish that the MKK4/MKK5-MPK3/MPK6 module is downstream of YODA, a MAPKKK. The establishment of a complete MAPK signaling cascade as a key regulator of stomatal development and patterning advances our understanding of the regulatory mechanisms of intercellular signaling events that coordinate cell fate specification during stomatal development.

HIV-1 preferentially infects M. tuberculosis-specific CD4+ T cells due to their increased production of IL-2.

Background The acid-fast bacillus Mycobacterium tuberculosis (MTB) is often the first manifestation of AIDS in HIV infected patients. This study was conducted to better understand the mechanism underlying MTB-specific pathogenicity early in HIV infection. Methods MTB-specific T Helper 1 (TH1) cells were studied in HIV negative (n=114) and chronically HIV infected (n=68) Tanzanian subjects usinEarly Secreted Antigenic Target 6 (ESAT6) protein or Tuberculin (PPD) by Interferon gamma (IFNγ) ELISPOT and intracellular cytokine staining. In a longitudinal study the effect of acute HIV infection on MTB-specific TH1 cells was determined by polychromatic flow cytometric analysis in 5 subjects with latent MTB infection, who became infected with HIV. Results In Tuberculosis (TB) asymptomatic subjects, chronic HIV infection was associated with a decreased frequency of responders with detectable MTB-specific TH1 cells (p-value = 0.0003) that was not observed in subjects with active TB. Acute HIV infection induced a rapid depletion of MTB-specific TH1 cells in 4 subjects who remained TB asymptomatic, but were stable in subjects who remained HIV negative (p<0.01). Conclusions Together these data suggest a mechanism of rapid MTB-specific TH1 cell depletion that may contribute to the early onset of TB in latently MTB infected individuals who become HIV infected.