Background Prisons represent a unique opportunity to diagnose blood-borne viruses. Opt-out testing is receiving increasing interest, as a result of mounting evidence to suggest that the manner in which a test offer is delivered, affects test uptake. Although the effectiveness of opt-out testing within the prison setting has been established, robust explanations are required for the variation in outcomes reported. Methods Rapid-realist review methodology was used to synthesise the literature on prison-based opt-out testing. The review was carried out in three phases. Phase one: An expert panel provided literature relevant to the implementation of opt-out testing within the English prison estate. Unstructured searches were also conducted to identify other social programmes where “opt-out” had been used to increase uptake. Phase two: a systematic search of six peer-review and five grey literature databases was carried out to identify empirical data on opt-out testing within the prison setting. Phase three: Additional non-exhaustive searches were carried out to identify literature that reinforced emergent concepts. The development of programme theory took place with each iteration and was validated in consultation with stakeholders. Results Programme theory was constructed for two outcomes: the proportion of intake offered a test and the proportion offered that accepted testing. The proportion of intake offered testing was influenced by the timing of the test offer, which was often delayed due to barriers to prisoner access. The decision to accept testing was influenced by concerns about confidentiality, fear of a positive diagnosis, a prisoner’s personal interpretation of risk, discomfort with invasive procedures, trust in healthcare, and the fidelity of the opt-out offer. Conclusions This review identified important implementation considerations that moderate the effectiveness of opt-out testing programmes. It also highlighted a lack of appreciation for the theoretical underpinnings of opt-out programmes and tension around how to implement testing in a manner that adheres to both default theory and informed consent. It is anticipated that results will be used to inform the design and implementation of subsequent versions of these programmes, as well as catalyse further in-depth analysis into their operation within the unique context of prison. Review registration CRD42017068342 . Electronic supplementary material The online version of this article (10.1186/s12913-019-3970-z) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.

No abstract

The United Kingdom is committed to eliminating hepatitis C virus (HCV) infection by 2025. The prison estate provides an opportunity to identify and treat HCV‐positive individuals in a high‐prevalence environment. We designed and implemented a pathway of care within a London prison to diagnose, stratify and link HCV‐positive prisoners into care. This study was a two‐phase case study of a HCV care pathway. New arrivals to the prison were offered blood‐borne virus screening with dried blood spot testing at their secondary health check. Those with active infection completed disease stratification tests and were reviewed at a weekly hospital‐based multidisciplinary team meeting to determine management. In Phase‐2, the pathway was redesigned to improve testing and the referral of HCV‐positive prisoners into treatment. Over the 30‐month evaluation period, 12,946 people were received in the prison. During Phase‐1, 19.6% of new arrivals completed blood‐borne virus testing, with 7.3% identified as HCV‐positive. Just 8.3% of HCV‐positive individuals were treated or referred for treatment in Phase‐1. During Phase‐2, 30% of new receptions completed BBV testing and 3.9% were identified as HCV‐positive. Linkage into care was improved, with 38.9% treated or referred during the second phase. Poor access to testing and referral to treatment limit the effectiveness of care provision for prisoners with HCV. Elimination of HCV in prisons requires local service configuration to ensure high uptake of testing, with all HCV‐positive cases then offered treatment during custody or referral on to treatment after release.