ObjectivesCurrent models of transgene dispersal focus on gene flow via pollen while neglecting seed, a vital vehicle for gene flow in centers of crop origin and diversity. We analyze the dispersal of maize transgenes via seeds in Mexico, the crop's cradle.MethodsWe use immunoassays (ELISA) to screen for the activity of recombinant proteins in a nationwide sample of farmer seed stocks. We estimate critical parameters of seed population dynamics using household survey data and combine these estimates with analytical results to examine presumed sources and mechanisms of dispersal.ResultsRecombinant proteins Cry1Ab/Ac and CP4/EPSPS were found in 3.1% and 1.8% of samples, respectively. They are most abundant in southeast Mexico but also present in the west-central region. Diffusion of seed and grain imported from the United States might explain the frequency and distribution of transgenes in west-central Mexico but not in the southeast.ConclusionsUnderstanding the potential for transgene survival and dispersal should help design methods to regulate the diffusion of germplasm into local seed stocks. Further research is needed on the interactions between formal and informal seed systems and grain markets in centers of crop origin and diversification.

In 2003, the environmental authorities of the Federal District of Mexico declared that genetically modified organisms were incompatible with ecological agriculture practices established in rural areas south of Mexico City. To ensure compliance with official standards and organic agriculture policies, steps were taken to implement an early warning system for the detection of genetically modified maize in farmers' fields. In our sampling efforts, which were conducted in 2003, transgenic proteins expressed in maize were found in two (0.96%) of 208 samples from farmers' fields, located in two (8%) of 25 sampled communities. Mexico imports a substantial amount of maize from the US, and due to formal and informal seed networks among rural farmers, there are many potential routes of entrance for transgenic maize into food and feed webs. To sustain agroecological practices, preserve organic agriculture, and conserve maize landraces in the Soil Conservation area of the Mexican Federal District, environmental authorities will need to maintain and update ecological policies such as the “green seal” for organic agriculture, apply alternative technologies such as biofertilizers to enhance plant nutrition, and develop sustainable maize agriculture with the implementation of profitable intercropping systems.

Tropical fruit peels are generally discarded as waste, yet they contain bioactive substances that could have various uses; in addition, their pharmacological potential remains unexplored. This study aims to characterize the phytochemical profile, toxicity, and pharmacological potential of methanol extracts obtained from the peels of the following tropical fruit species: Annona squamosa L. (purple sugar apple), Annona reticulata L. (custard apple), Chrysophyllum cainito L. (green star apple), and Melicoccus bijugatus Jacq. (mamoncillo). Methanol peel extracts were obtained by maceration. All extracts contained flavonoids, anthraquinones, and triterpenoids as determined by colorimetric methods. A. squamosa and C. cainito exhibited the highest content of total phenols as assayed by the Folin-Ciocalteu method. M. bijugatus showed the highest content of total sugars (fructose, glucose, and sucrose) as determined by high-performance liquid chromatography. A. squamosa and C. cainito presented the highest antioxidant capacities (according to 2,2'-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl, 2,2'-azinobis(3-ethylbenzothiazoline-6-sulfonic acid, and cupric reducing antioxidant capacity assays), displayed moderate toxicity against HCT-116 cells, and increased the vinblastine susceptibility of MCF-7/Vin. A. squamosa and M. bijugatus extracts demonstrated modulation of acetylcholinesterase activity, whereas those of A. reticulata showed anti-inflammatory activity by inhibiting protein denaturation. These results confirm that tropical fruit peels can be valuable sources of bioactive compounds, and our findings provide new information about their pharmacologic potential so that they can be used as raw material for the development of new drugs aimed at treating a variety of ailments.

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Palabras clave: acetilcolinesterasa, butirilcolinesterasa, paraoxonasa, plaguicidas RESUMEN En esta revisión sobre las colinesterasas se abarcan temas tales como las características de los genes y los transcritos generados durante el proceso de corte-empalme alternativo que deriva en una amplia heterogeneidad estructural proteica-polimorfismo molecular-; se hace una descripción detallada de la estructura proteínica implicada en el mecanismo de actividad enzimática; se mencionan evidencias que sustentan algunas funciones enzimáticas alternativas, y se examinan tanto el mecanismo de inhibición general por los plaguicidas organofosforados y carbamatos como sus efectos fisiológicos.