Our data suggest that XLA might result in part from genetic inflammasome deficiency and that NLRP3 inflammasome-linked inflammation could potentially be targeted pharmacologically through BTK.

Key Points• The hyperactive phenotype of lymphoma-associated mutations is caused by increased oligomerization propensity of the MyD88 TIR domain.• The TIR domain of mutants interacts with wild-type MyD88, explaining why heterozygous mutation could be sufficient as a driver mutation.Myeloid differentiation 88 (MyD88) is the key signaling adapter of Toll-like and interleukin-1 receptors. Recurrent lymphoma-associated mutations, particularly Leu265Pro (L265P), within the MyD88 Toll/interleukin-1 receptor (TIR) domain sustain lymphoma cell survival due to constitutive nuclear factor kB signaling. We found that mutated TIR domains displayed an intrinsic propensity for augmented oligomerization and spontaneous formation of cytosolic Myddosome aggregates in lymphoma cell lines, mimicking the effect of dimerized TIR domains. Blocking of MyD88 oligomerization induced apoptosis. The L265P TIR domain can recruit the endogenous wild-type MyD88 for oligomer formation and hyperactivity. Molecular dynamics simulations and analysis of additional mutations suggest that constitutive activity is caused by allosteric oligomerization. (Blood. 2014;124(26):3896-3904) IntroductionMyeloid differentiation 88 (MyD88) is a pivotal signaling protein in the innate immune system, participating in Toll-like receptor (TLR) signaling pathways during a host's response to infection. 1 Patients with germline MYD88 loss-of-function mutations suffer from severe susceptibility to pyogenic bacterial infection during childhood and only survive into adulthood on a strict therapy of antibiotics.2 Conversely, somatic MyD88 gain-of-function mutations were recently discovered in diffuse large B-cell lymphoma (DBLCL), Waldenström's macroglobulinemia (WM), and chronic lymphocytic leukemia (supplemental Tables 1 and 2 available on the Blood Web site). These data suggest that such mutations, particularly the most prominent Leu265Pro (L265P) mutation, are oncogenic driver mutations that sustain B-cell survival and thus oncogenesis. Indeed, MyD88-mutated cells (cell lines and primary cells) could be selectively killed by ablation of MyD88 downstream signaling using short hairpin RNA or pharmacologic inhibition. 3,4 Although hyperactivation of nuclear factor kB (NF-kB) has been described as a key feature of MyD88-mutated B cells, the molecular mechanism of how the amino acid alterations in lymphomaassociated MyD88 mutations exert this phenotype has to be resolved.MyD88 is composed of an N-terminal death domain (DD) 5 and a highly conserved C-terminal Toll/interleukin-1 receptor (TIR) domain. 6 Whereas the DD and an intermediate linker domain 7 are responsible for downstream signal propagation via kinases of the interleukin-1 receptor-associated kinases (IRAKs), 8 the MyD88 TIR domain integrates signals from upstream TLR and interleukin-1 receptor. Association of TLRs mediated by their agonists triggers the formation of TIR-domain dimers, which results in downstream signaling and expression of genes involved in the host defense system. 1,9 TIR domains comprise 135-...

Chitin is the second most abundant polysaccharide in nature and linked to fungal infection and asthma. However, bona fide immune receptors directly binding chitin and signaling immune activation and inflammation have not been clearly identified because polymeric crude chitin with unknown purity and molecular composition has been used. By using defined chitin (N‐acetyl‐glucosamine) oligomers, we here identify six‐subunit‐long chitin chains as the smallest immunologically active motif and the innate immune receptor Toll‐like receptor (TLR2) as a primary fungal chitin sensor on human and murine immune cells. Chitin oligomers directly bind TLR2 with nanomolar affinity, and this fungal TLR2 ligand shows overlapping and distinct signaling outcomes compared to known mycobacterial TLR2 ligands. Unexpectedly, chitin oligomers composed of five or less subunits are inactive, hinting to a size‐dependent system of immuno‐modulation that appears conserved in plants and humans. Since blocking of the chitin‐TLR2 interaction effectively prevents chitin‐mediated inflammation in vitro and in vivo, our study highlights the chitin‐TLR2 interaction as a potential target for developing novel therapies in chitin‐related pathologies and fungal disease.

Genome sequencing has uncovered an array of recurring somatic mutations in different non-Hodgkin lymphoma (NHL) subtypes. If affecting protein-coding regions, such mutations may yield mutation-derived peptides that may be presented by HLA class I proteins and recognized by cytotoxic T cells. A recurring somatic and oncogenic driver mutation of the Toll-like receptor adaptor protein MYD88, Leu265Pro (L265P) was identified in up to 90% of different NHL subtype patients. We therefore screened the potential of MYD88L265P-derived peptides to elicit cytotoxic T cell responses as tumor-specific neoantigens. Based on in silico predictions, we identified potential MYD88L265P-containing HLA ligands for several HLA class I restrictions. A set of HLA class I MYD88L265P-derived ligands elicited specific cytotoxic T cell responses for HLA-B*07 and -B*15. These data highlight the potential of MYD88L265P mutation-specific peptide-based immunotherapy as a novel personalized treatment approach for patients with MYD88L265P+ NHLs that may complement pharmacological approaches targeting oncogenic MyD88 L265P signaling.

Chitin is a highly abundant polysaccharide and linked to fungal infection and asthma. Unfortunately, its polymeric structure has hampered the identification of immune receptors directly binding chitin and signaling immune activation and inflammation, because purity, molecular structure and molarity are not well definable for a polymer typically extracted from biomass. Therefore, by using defined chitin (N-acetyl-glucosamine) oligomers, we identified six subunit long chitin chains as the smallest immunologically active motif and the innate immune receptor Toll-like receptor (TLR) 2 as the primary fungal chitin receptor on human and murine immune cells. Chitin oligomers directly bound TLR2 with nanomolar affinity and showed both overlapping and distinct signaling outcomes compared to known mycobacterial TLR2 ligands. Conversely, chitin oligomers shorter than 6 subunits were inactive or showed antagonistic effects on chitin/TLR2-mediated signaling, hinting to a sizedependent sensing/activation system unexpectedly conserved in plants and humans. Since blocking the chitin-TLR2 interaction effectively prevented chitin-mediated inflammation in vitro and in vivo, our study highlights the chitin TLR2 interaction as a potential target for developing novel therapies in chitin-related pathologies and fungal disease. Fuchs