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Prisoner re-entry literature has primarily been framed as a problem that affects all types of ex-offenders, regardless of race. Surprisingly, the issue of race has been ignored in most of the literature on prisoner re-entry. In this paper, we maintain that the effect of contextual racial stratification is so powerful that for the majority of White exoffenders the large social capital at their disposal might buffer against the collateral consequences of a criminal conviction. By contrast, Black ex-prisoners might be more vulnerable to the collateral consequences of a criminal conviction precisely because of their greater individual-level, accumulated disadvantage. We contend that structural-level factors have more explanatory power than individual-level factors and identify causal mechanisms that link social context with the large Black-White disparity in recidivism. Finally, we propose a racial/ethnic integration model for successful re-entry and reintegrationPeer reviewe

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This article examines the issue of penalties for crimes against humanity and war crimes as imposed by the judges of the International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia (ICTY). At the moment, if for example A murders B, C, and D in the course of an armed conflict, it appears to makes no difference in terms of penalties if he is ultimately convicted under crimes against humanity or war crimes, what appears to matter is the fact that he committed murder. This approach has the effect of obscuring the criminal intention and motives for war crimes and crimes against humanity. The main reason why the ICTY has persisted with this approach, is the fact that at present there appears to be no credible index for adopting a policy of relative sentencing for crimes against humanity and war crimes. The aim of this Article therefore is to advocate a method for imposing higher penalties for crimes against humanity vis-à-vis war crimes. Furthermore, this method will rely on the argument that crimes against humanity offences e.g. murder, rape and torture when committed with a discriminatory motive should attract higher penalties than identical offences when committed as war crimes.