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This study draws on social learning theory to analyse and compare the effects of predeparture cross-cultural training (PDCCT) and in-country cross-cultural training (ICCCT) on performance. It focuses on the structural distinction between these two types of training: whether they occur before or during expatriation. Analysis of a sample of 206 expatriates and their firm's annual professional evaluation shows that ICCCT facilitates professional performance, while no impact of PDCCT on performance could be ascertained.

Despite the importance of distance in international business and management research, the theoretical foundation for the concept and the underlying causal mechanisms are subject to shortcomings. We propose reinvigorating the study of distance through a diversity lens. We draw on research on diversity and develop a theoretical framework that distinguishes types of diversity (separation, variety, and disparity) at three levels (institutional, organizational, and individual). We show how this framework allows scholars to extend their analysis of distance, revisit important questions, and explore new issues. We discuss the theoretical and empirical implications of our diversity lens for the international business and management community.

Purpose Expatriation is known to be stressful. The purpose of this paper is to examine stress as an antecedent of substance use (SU) during expatriation and related effects on expatriates’ work adjustment. Moreover, the study sheds light on individual-level moderators (i.e. gender and prior international experience) and organizational-level moderators (i.e. organizational social support) that might condition the stress–SU link. Design/methodology/approach This work adopts a quantitative survey approach. It is based on two studies, one of 205 expatriates and one of 96 expatriate–supervisor dyads. The data were collected through personal networks and with the help of multinational companies. Findings This research shows that stress at a medium- to high-level increases SU among male expatriates, but not among female expatriates. Expatriates with substantial prior international experience were identified as being more prone to react to stress by resorting to SU. It also provides evidence that SU to aid coping harms professional adjustment. Moreover, some implications relating to professional adjustment are discussed. Research limitations/implications SU was self-reported; this may have deterred users from accurately reporting their consumption levels. Moreover, convenience samples have been used. Preventive actions limiting SU, such as well-being programs, could be sponsored by local human resource managers in order to limit this phenomenon. Originality/value This work is one of the first to analyze SU among expatriates. It shows that some expatriates are more at risk than others of resorting to such use to cope with the hardships of expatriation.

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