We present an overview of the main techniques for production and processing of graphene and related materials (GRMs), as well as the key characterization procedures. We adopt a ‘hands-on’ approach, providing practical details and procedures as derived from literature as well as from the authors’ experience, in order to enable the reader to reproduce the results. Section is devoted to ‘bottom up’ approaches, whereby individual constituents are pieced together into more complex structures. We consider graphene nanoribbons (GNRs) produced either by solution processing or by on-surface synthesis in ultra high vacuum (UHV), as well carbon nanomembranes (CNM). Production of a variety of GNRs with tailored band gaps and edge shapes is now possible. CNMs can be tuned in terms of porosity, crystallinity and electronic behaviour. Section covers ‘top down’ techniques. These rely on breaking down of a layered precursor, in the graphene case usually natural crystals like graphite or artificially synthesized materials, such as highly oriented pyrolythic graphite, monolayers or few layers (FL) flakes. The main focus of this section is on various exfoliation techniques in a liquid media, either intercalation or liquid phase exfoliation (LPE). The choice of precursor, exfoliation method, medium as well as the control of parameters such as time or temperature are crucial. A definite choice of parameters and conditions yields a particular material with specific properties that makes it more suitable for a targeted application. We cover protocols for the graphitic precursors to graphene oxide (GO). This is an important material for a range of applications in biomedicine, energy storage, nanocomposites, etc. Hummers’ and modified Hummers’ methods are used to make GO that subsequently can be reduced to obtain reduced graphene oxide (RGO) with a variety of strategies. GO flakes are also employed to prepare three-dimensional (3d) low density structures, such as sponges, foams, hydro- or aerogels. The assembly of flakes into 3d structures can provide improved mechanical properties. Aerogels with a highly open structure, with interconnected hierarchical pores, can enhance the accessibility to the whole surface area, as relevant for a number of applications, such as energy storage. The main recipes to yield graphite intercalation compounds (GICs) are also discussed. GICs are suitable precursors for covalent functionalization of graphene, but can also be used for the synthesis of uncharged graphene in solution. Degradation of the molecules intercalated in GICs can be triggered by high temperature treatment or microwave irradiation, creating a gas pressure surge in graphite and exfoliation. Electrochemical exfoliation by applying a voltage in an electrolyte to a graphite electrode can be tuned by varying precursors, electrolytes and potential. Graphite electrodes can be either negatively or positively intercalated to obtain GICs that are subsequently exfoliated. We also discuss the materials that can be amenable to exfoliation, by ...

STM images of multidomain epitaxial graphene on Pt(111) have been combined with a geometrical model to investigate the origin of the coincidence Moiré superstructures. We show that there is a relation between the appearance of a particular Moiré periodicity and the minimization of the absolute value of the strain between the graphene and the substrate for the different orientations between both atomic lattices. This model predicts all the stable epitaxial graphene structures that can be grown on transition metal surfaces, and we have made use of it for reproducing previously published data from different authors. Its validity suggests that minimization of the strain within the coincident graphene unit-cell due to a strong local interaction is the driving force in the formation of Moiré superstructures.

The conversion of electric power to light is an important scientific and technological challenge. Advanced experimental methods have provided access to explore the relevant microscopic processes at the nanometer scale. Here, we review state-of-the-art studies of electroluminescence induced on the molecular scale by scanning tunneling microscopy. We discuss the generation of excited electronic states and electron-hole pairs (excitons) at molecular interfaces and address interactions between electronic states, local electromagnetic fields (tip-induced plasmons), and molecular vibrations. The combination of electronic and optical spectroscopies with atomic-scale spatial resolution is able to provide a comprehensive picture of energy conversion at the molecular level. A recently developed aspect is the characterization of electroluminescence emitters as quantum light sources, which can be studied with high time resolution, thus providing access to picosecond dynamics at the atomic scale.