Local variations in fruit- and leaf-eating have been reported for some primate species; however, similar variations in exudate-feeding of pygmy marmosets, one of the most specialized neotropical primate species, have not been studied. In our 3-year study of four populations of pygmy marmosets in northeastern Ecuador, we characterized their exudate-feeding behavior by describing the use of exudate sources. We tested whether the use of exudate species was related to ecological factors such as the availability of exudate species in an area. We estimated the daily activity budgets of the groups with 1-hr scan samples and found significant interpopulation differences in the time spent on exudate feeding. We recorded a total of 18 exudate species used in the four populations; however, the populations differed in the total number of species used and in the preferred species. The most commonly used plant species were Sterculia apetala at San Pablo, Cedrela odorata at Sacha, Inga marginata at Amazoonico, and Parkia balslevii at Zancudo. We recorded the presence and abundance of the 18 exudate species in 90-m transects in the home range of each group and in one additional control area that contained no marmosets, for each population. Differences in the most-used exudate species among populations did not appear to be related to the availability of these species in each population, i.e., the marmosets did not use at random the exudate species available within their range, nor did they use more often the exudate species that were more abundant in their home ranges. One implication of our results for conservation is that protecting exudate resources based on data from only one area will not be sufficient to preserve pygmy marmosets in all populations.

Since 1996 we have studied eight populations of pygmy marmosets Cebuella pygmaea in northeastern Ecuador. Our data suggest that the habitat and diet specializations of pygmy marmosets make them particularly vulnerable to local extinction because of human activities. In periodical surveys we conducted of these populations, we found that pygmy marmosets were absent from disturbed habitats. We have also found a gradual decrease of population density and significant behavioral changes in pygmy marmosets living in areas affected by habitat destruction, human traffic, tourism, and human capture of marmosets. We evaluated the degree of habitat disturbance both at regional and local scales and have found that about 75-85% of the gallery forests inhabited by pygmy marmosets are affected by logging and agriculture. Based on our results, we propose to include pygmy marmosets in the list of Vulnerable species in Ecuador, based on the IUCN criterion A4 (c, d). This proposed change is one of the necessary steps we need to conserve Ecuadorian pygmy marmosets and their habitats. To achieve this aim we have also developed an on-going environmental education program directed to the children of the communities that live close to the pygmy marmoset populations as well as to children in urban areas.Resumen Desde 1996 hasta el presente, hemos estudiado ocho poblaciones de leoncillos Cebuella pygmaea en el nororiente ecuatoriano. Nuestros datos sugieren que las especializaciones de hábitat y dieta de los leoncillos los hacen particularmente vulnerables a las actividades humanas. En censos realizados para estimar la densidad ecológica de los leoncillos en las poblaciones hemos registrado la ausencia de leoncillos en hábitats disturbados; también hemos registrado una disminución gradual de la densidad poblacional y cambios significativos en el comportamiento de leoncillos en áreas afectadas por alteración de hábitat, tráfico humano, turismo y captura de leoncillos. En una evaluación del grado de alteración

From April 2008 through May 2009, we carried out two complementary studies to evaluate the effects of deforestation and fragmentation on the diversity of terrestrial mammals and on the behavior of the primate Callithrix pygmaea (pygmy marmoset) in varzea forests in the land of the Secoya nationality, along the Shushufindi and Aguarico Rivers. To record terrestrial mammals we located four camera traps in the varzea forest of the Ethnobotanical Garden Sehuayeja, in an area affected by deforestation, fragmentation and hunting, and other four camera traps in the better-conserved varzea forest of Siecoya. Camera traps were located in animal trails or in feeding areas (fruiting trees). To record the behavior of three groups of pygmy marmosets we used scan samples along the day to gather data on group size, home range size and use of habitat and of exudate sources. Our results suggest that the communities of terrestrial mammals are being affected by deforestation and fragmentation. We recorded 16 mammal species in the Siecoya varzea and 12 species in the Sehuayeja varzea. The number of species recorded per active camera in the Siecoya varzea almost doubled that recorded in the Sehuayeja varzea (2.63 species/camera ± 1.87 vs.1.34 species/camera ± 0.93). Four carnivore species (mainly felids) and the tapir were not recorded in the Sehuayeja varzea but in the Siecoya varzea. Deforestation and fragmentation of varzea forests also affected the use of habitat and the feeding behavior of pygmy marmosets. Mean home range size was almost three times larger than that reported in previous years in the same population. Additionally, groups exhibited a "nomad" behavior, not previously reported, characterized by the intermittent use of small core areas and large periods of continuous movement among core areas. We also reported the use of a new exudates species (Cedrela odorata) in this population. Our results suggest that the responses of mammal populations to deforestation and fragmentation are complex and need to be studied in more depth.Keywords. terrestrial mammals, Callithrix pygmaea, Ecuadorian Amazon, varzea forests, camera traps, home range, deforestation, fragmentation ResumenEntre abril 2008 y mayo 2009, realizamos dos estudios complementarios para evaluar los efectos de la deforestación y fragmentación de los bosques sobre la diversidad de mamíferos terrestres y el comportamiento del primate Callithrix pygmaea (leoncillo) en tierras de la nacionalidad Secoya en los ríos Shushufindi y Aguarico. Para el registro de mamíferos terrestres colocamos cuatro cámaras trampa en el bosque de varzea del Jardín Etnobotánico Sehuayeja, en un área afectada por deforestación, fragmentación y cacería, y otras cuatro en el mejor conservado bosque de varzea de Siecoya. Las cámaras se colocaron en lugares de paso de animales o cerca de comederos (i.e., árboles en fructificación). Para el estudio de comportamiento de tres grupos de leoncillos usamos muestreos de barrido distribuidos a lo largo de todo el día para obtener datos sobre e...

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