Background Infant cognitive development is influenced by maternal factors that range from obesity to early feeding and breast milk composition. Animal studies suggest a role for human milk oligosaccharide (HMO), 2'-fucosyllactose (2'FL), on learning and memory, yet no human studies have examined its impact on infant cognitive development relative to other HMOs and maternal factors. Objective To determine the impact of 2'FL from breast milk feeding on infant cognitive development at 24 months of age relative to maternal obesity and breast milk feeding frequency. Methods and materials Hispanic mother-infant pairs (N = 50) were recruited across the spectrum of pre-pregnancy BMI. Breast milk was collected at 1 and 6 months, and feedings/day were reported. Nineteen HMOs were analyzed using high-performance liquid chromatography, with initial interest in 2'FL. Infant cognitive development score was assessed with the Bayley-III Scale at 24 months. Linear regressions were used for prediction, and bootstrapping to determine mediation by 2'FL.

Background Human milk oligosaccharides (HMOs) are complex glycans that are highly abundant in human milk. While over 150 HMOs have been identified, it is unknown how individual HMOs change in concentration over 24 months of lactation. Objectives To understand how HMO concentrations change over 24 months of lactation. Methods Breast milk samples were collected from participants in a longitudinal cohort study of Hispanic mother-infant pairs at 1, 6, 12, 18, and 24 months postpartum. Concentrations of 19 of the most abundant HMOs were measured using HPLC. Because the parent study is ongoing and not all participants have finished all time points yet, the sample sizes ranged per time point (n = 207 at 1 month; n = 109 at 6 months; n = 83 at 12 months; n = 59 at 18 months; and n = 28 at 24 months). Approximately 88% of participants were classified as HMO secretors—a genetic factor that affects concentrations of HMOs such as 2’fucosyllactose (2’FL) and lacto-N-fucopentaose I—while the remaining 12% were classified as nonsecretors. Mixed models were used to examine changes in HMO concentrations and relative abundances over the course of lactation. Results The majority of HMOs significantly decreased in concentration over the course of lactation. The exceptions were 2’FL, sialyl-lacto-N-tetraose b, and disialyl-lacto-N-tetraose, which did not change with time, and 3-fucosyllactose (3FL) and 3′-sialyllactose (3’SL), which significantly increased. The concentration of 3FL increased 10-fold, from 195 (IQR 138–415) μg/mL at 1 month to 1930 (1100–2630) μg/mL at 24 months, while 3’SL increased 2-fold, from 277 (198–377) μg/mL to 568 (448–708) μg/mL over the same time period. Conclusions These results indicate that HMOs do not decrease in concentration uniformly across lactation. In particular, 3FL and 3’SL increased over the course of lactation in this cohort. Future studies are required to fully understand the functions of these HMOs.

Background: Picky eating has been associated with lower weight status and limited food intake and variety in childhood. Little is known about how the persistence of picky eating in childhood is associated with changes in weight and food intake from childhood into adolescence. Objective: We determined whether picky eating identified in childhood was related to growth, nutrition, and parental use of pressure over a 10-y period. Design: Non-Hispanic white girls (n = 181) participated in a longitudinal study and were assessed biannually from ages 5 to 15 y. The Child Feeding Questionnaire was used to classify girls as persistent picky eaters or nonpicky eaters and to assess parental use of pressure to eat. Height and weight were measured to calculate body mass index (BMI) z scores at each occasion. Three 24-h dietary recalls obtained at each occasion were used to determine intakes of fruit and vegetables. With the use of repeated-measures analyses, differences between persistent picky eaters and nonpicky eaters in BMI z scores, dietary intake, and use of pressure were examined. Results: From ages 5 to 15 y, persistent picky eaters (n = 33; 18%) had lower BMI (tracking at the 50th percentile) than did nonpicky eaters (n = 148; tracking at the 65th percentile) (P = 0.02). Persistent picky eaters were less likely to be overweight into adolescence. Both groups consumed less than the recommended amounts of fruit and vegetables, although persistent picky eaters had lower intakes of vegetables than did nonpicky eaters at all time points (P = 0.02). Persistent picky eaters also received higher amounts of pressure (P = 0.01). Conclusions: Findings that persistent picky eaters were within the normal weight range, were less likely to be overweight, and had similar fruit intakes to those of nonpicky eaters suggest that higher parental concerns about persistent picky eaters are unwarranted. All parents and children could benefit from evidence-based anticipatory guidance on alternatives to coercive feeding practices to increase fruit and vegetable consumption.Am J Clin Nutr 2016;104:1577-82.

ObjectiveReview the state-of-the-science on psychological and neural contributions to appetite self-regulation in the context of obesity.MethodsThree content areas (neural systems and cognitive functions; parenting and early childhood development; and goal setting and goal striving) served as examples of different perspectives on the psychological and neural factors that contribute to appetite dysregulation in the context of obesity. Talks were initially delivered at a workshop consisting of experts in these three content areas and then content areas were further developed through a review of the literature.ResultsSelf-regulation of appetite involves a complex interaction between multiple domains, including cognitive, neural, social, and goal-directed behaviors and decision-making. Self-regulation failures can results from any of these factors, and the resulting implications for obesity should be considered in light of each domain. In some cases, self-regulation appears to be amenable to intervention; however, this does not appear to be universally true, which has implications for both prevention and intervention efforts.ConclusionsAppetite regulation is a complex, multi-factorial construct. When considering its role in the obesity epidemic, it is advisable to consider these various contributions together to best inform prevention and treatment efforts.

Summary Background It is unknown to what extent higher maternal blood pressure (BP) in early postpartum impacts the relationship between higher maternal weight status and greater infant weight gain in early postpartum. Objective To evaluate the mediating role of higher maternal BP at 1 month postpartum on the association between higher maternal weight status at 1 month postpartum and greater infant weight gain over 6 months postpartum. Methods Participants were 169 Hispanic mother‐infant pairs. Maternal body mass index (BMI) and BP were assessed at 1 month postpartum. Infant weight was measured at 1 and 6 months postpartum to calculate weight‐for‐age z scores (WAZ). Multiple linear regression models were used for prediction, and Sobel test was used to determine mediation. Results Controlling for maternal pre‐pregnancy BMI, age, delivery mode, infant sex, and infant birth weight revealed that both maternal BMI (β = .29) and BP (β = .32) predicted infant WAZ gain (both P ≤ .03). However, the relationship between infant WAZ gain and maternal BMI was no longer significant after further adjustment for maternal BP, which remained significant (P < .05). Maternal BP explained 23.6% (Sobel T = 2.01) of the association between maternal BMI at 1 month and infant WAZ gain over 6 months. Conclusion Our data suggest that higher maternal weight status at 1 month postpartum is related to greater infant weight gain over 6 months postpartum, and this relationship is mediated by higher maternal BP at 1 month postpartum.